menu_book Chapter 10

CHAPTER X of 1001 Questions and Answers on General History. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. Recording by Betty B. 1001 Questions and Answers on General History by Benjamin Hathaway.

France 1. What great empire arose during the Middle Ages? The Frankish Empire. 2. Who were the Franks? A German race who laid the foundation of France and Germany.

3. What is the first great event in their history? The conversion of their chieftain Clovis to Christianity because of a victorious battle. Three thousand warriors were baptized with him at Raes. 4. Where did he fix his capital? 5. What assisted him in his triumphal course?

The power of the Church. 6. What did he establish? The Merovingian or First Frankish Dynasty. 7. What was the second dynasty called? The Carlovingian.

8. Who was the great ruler in this dynasty? Charlemagne. 9. What did he aim to do? To unite the fragments of the Roman Empire. 10. How did he succeed?

After thirty years of war his scepter was acknowledged from the German Ocean to the Adriatic and from the Channel to the Lower Danube. Having restored the Western Empire he was crowned Emperor of Rome. 11. What did he next attempt? To organize by law the various peoples he had conquered by the sword, but the work of

his life perished with him. 12. What did his death cause? A division of the Frankish Empire among his children. And this was the beginning of France and Germany. 13. How was the country named?

Lothair's kingdom was called Lotharingia and a part of it is still called Lorraine. Luís's kingdom was called East Frankland, but the name Deutsch, German, soon came into use. Charles' kingdom was styled West Frankland, Latin Francia, hence France. 14. What were Charlemagne's characteristics?

Keen to detect, apt to understand, profound to grasp, and quick to decide, he impressed all who knew him with a sense of power. He was the best educated man of his age. He mastered Latin, read Greek, and some Oriental languages, and was learned in astronomy, rhetoric, and logic, though he stumbled on the simple art of writing.

He was the greatest man since Julius Caesar. 15. How did the Norsemen come to settle in France? They ravaged the coast during the days of Charlemagne, and at last one of his successors, Charles the Simple, gave Rollo, the boldest of the Vikings, a province, since known as Normandy.

16. What change then took place? The Normans, as they were called, adopted the language, religion, and customs of the French, and Normandy in time became the fairest province in France. 17. What was France in the 10th century? A collection of provinces, each with its own government and its own history.

18. What was the feudal system? A king, instead of keeping a standing army, granted a part of his estates, or fiefs, to his nobles, and they as vassals agreed not only to serve him in person, but to furnish upon his call a certain number of armed men ready and equipped for active military service. 19. When did this flourish?

During the Middle Ages. 20. What dynasty was founded in France in the Middle Ages? The Capetian dynasty, founded by Hugh Capet. 987. He was the first native French king. 21. What occurred during the reign of his son and successor, Robert?

The year 1000 had been predicted as the Millennium, and this belief occasioned general neglect and idleness. A dreadful famine and pestilence was the result. 22. How was the power of the Church exercised for the good of the people during the reign of Henry I? 1031 to 1060. It established what was called the Truce of God, a religious injunction against all military operations from Wednesday at sunset till sunrise on Monday, and on all feast and holy

days. 23. How did it affect the nobles and peasantry? It put a check on the unceasing warfare of the nobles and gave the peasantry an opportunity to cultivate the lands and thus prevent famine and pestilence. 24. What was an important event in the reign of Philip I? 1060 to 1108. Peter the Hermit preached the First Crusade. 25. Who was Peter the Hermit, a monk who resolved to rescue the Holy Supplicker in Jerusalem from the Turks? 26. How did he travel through Italy and

France? With bare head and feet, dressed in a coarse robe, tied with a cord, bearing a crucifix in his hand and riding an ass. 27. What did he accomplish? He stirred the people by his appeals and thousands volunteered to follow him. Without order or discipline, they crossed Europe, robbing the inhabitants and killing the Jews wherever they went. They all perished either by the way or in the struggle with the Turks. 28. How many crusades were there? 8. 29. What two

military religious orders arose during the First Crusade? The Hospitallers, who wore a white cross and a black mantle, and the Templars, whose badge was a red cross on a white mantle. They vowed obedience, celibacy and poverty to defend pilgrims, to be first in battle and last in retreat. 30. How did the crusades end? In defeat for the Christians. 31. What was their effect upon Europe? Commerce received a new impulse. The tide of Mohammedan conquest was stayed and the European states,

by coming into contact with the more polished nations of the East, gained refinement and culture. 32. What was the important event in the reign of Louis VI? 1108 to 1137. He gave the towns their first charters, thus relieving large numbers of the lower orders from the condition of serfdom in which they had been kept by the aristocracy. 33. What were these early municipalities called? Communes or Commons, afterward the third estate, and consisted of citizens

leagued together for mutual defense. 34. What does the history of France during the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries show? How she absorbed the great fiefs one by one, how royalty triumphed over feudalism and how finally all became absorbed in one great monarchy. 35. What religious persecution took place in the reign of Philip Augustus? 1180 to 1223. The persecution of the Albigenses, a sect of dissenters from the Church of Rome. Pope Innocent III preached a crusade against them

and their chief defender, Count Raymond of Toulouse. A war ensued and the most dreadful massacres were perpetrated. 36. What name has been given Louis IX? 1226 to 1270. Saint Louis. 37. What was his reign? One of integrity and wisdom during which France assumed the first rank among European nations. 38. Who succeeded Louis IX? Philip III the Hardy. 1270 to 1285. 39. What terrible event occurred during his reign? The massacre of the Sicilian Vespers.

40. What led to it? He assisted his uncle Charles, King of Sicily, in a war against the Moors. Charles was very odious to the people on account of his arbitrary government and the excesses of his followers and the result was that on Easter Day 1282, when the church bell sounded for Vespers, the Sicilians rushed on all the French they could meet with and massacred 8,000 persons without mercy. 41. Who succeeded Philip III? Philip IV called the fair. 1285 to 1314.

42. For what is his reign memorable? For the contest he carried on with Pope Boniface VIII on account of the Pope's attempt to prevent the taxation of the clergy. He treated the Pope's bulls with contempt and after the death of Boniface he transferred the seat of the papacy from Rome to Avignon where it remained 70 years. 43. What did Philip summon for the first time in French history? The states general or deputies of the three estates of the realm. 44. What were they?

The nobles, the clergy, and the third estate or the commons. 45. What was the real meaning of this assembly? The French people obtained representation from their king. 1302. 46. How did he treat the Knights Templars? He condemned and abolished this religious and military order which was founded during the Crusades. The Grand Master and many members were burnt to death while others were treated with shocking cruelty. 47. What was his motive? The immense wealth of the order excited

his greed and jealousy. 48. What royal house next succeeded to the throne? The house of Valois in 1328. 49. Why did this come about? Philip's three sons having come to the throne in succession died leaving no male heir and according to the Salic law no woman could wear the crown. 50. Why was this called the Salic law? It was an old law belonging to the barbarous code of the Salian Franks. 51. Who was the first king of the house of Valois? Philip VI. 52. What other competitor for the throne

was there? Edward III of England, the son of the daughter of Philip IV, but his claim was considered invalid by the French through the operation of the Salic law. 53. What war was the result of this dispute? The Hundred Years War, 1328 to 1453. 54. How many kings reigned in France during Edward's reign in England? Three. Philip VI, John the Good, and Charles V during Edward's reign of 50 years. 55. What was the first great battle of the Hundred Years War? The Battle of Crecy, 1346,

in which Philip was defeated. 56. What was the origin of the title Dauphin? Dauphinie was, about this time, annexed to France on condition that the king's eldest son should thereafter the title of Dauphin. 57. What terrible pestilence raged through Europe during Philip's reign? The Black Death, 1347 to 1350. It carried off vast multitudes of people, 50,000 in Paris alone. At sea, ships were discovered adrift, their crews having all died, and in Germany, cities and villages

were left without a single inhabitant. 58. Who invaded France during the reign of John the Good? The Prince of Wales, called the Black Prince from the color of his armor. 59. What great battle was fought? Battle of Poitiers, 1356, in which the French were defeated by a small army of English archers. 60. What insurrection burst forth at this time? An insurrection of the peasantry caused by the misery in which they had been so long kept

by the tyrannical nobles. 61. What is it called in history? The Jacquerie, from Jacques Bonhomme, a name derisively applied to a French peasant. 62. How did it end? After sacking the feudal castles, the peasants were finally defeated in an attack upon one of the towns and massacred by thousands so that the rural districts were almost depopulated. 63. Who succeeded Philip VI? Charles V, surname the Wise, 1364 to 1380. 64. What was the character of his reign? By means of

his prudent measures, he restored peace and prosperity to the kingdom. The English were deprived of nearly all their possessions in France and the Royal Library at Paris was founded. 65. What general commanded the French army at this time? Duguesclin. 66. Who succeeded Charles V? His son Charles VI at the age of 12. His reign coincided with three English kings, Richard II, Henry IV, and Henry V. 67. How was he afflicted? He was insane for 30 years,

and France was, in consequence, a prey to every species of disorder. 68. Who governed during this period? The dukes of Burgundy and Orléans. The Burgundians espoused the popular cause and were friendly to England and the Orleanists. The aristocratic side and opposed England. Paris ran with blood. 69. What famous battle was fought with the English? Battle of Agincourt, 1415, in which the French were defeated. 70. Who was the next king of France?

Charles VII, 1422 to 1461. 71. Where was he besieged by the English? At Orléans, 1428, the last stronghold of his party. 72. Who was his deliverer? Joan of Arc, a peasant girl who was impressed with the idea that she was divinely committed to save France. 73. What did she accomplish? She induced the king and his chief officers to believe in the truth of her mission, and was admitted into Orléans, wearing a consecrated sword and bearing a holy banner. Under

her leadership, the French seemed to be inspired with almost superhuman courage, and they compelled the English to raise the siege. 74. What was she now called? The maid of Orléans. 75. What did she urge the king to do? To march to Reims and be crowned in the great cathedral, which he did after several victorious battles, partly under her leadership. 76. What became of Joan of Arc? She wished to be dismissed, but her services being demanded, she remained in the army. A short time

afterward, she fell into the hands of the English and was tried and burnt as a witch. 77. What was the end of the Hundred Years' War? The English gradually lost all of their French possessions, except Calais. 78. What caused the death of Charles? He was inspired with such terror from the wicked intrigues of his son Louis that he was afraid to take food, lest he might be poisoned, and he finally died of starvation. 79. Who succeeded Charles VII? Louis XI sometimes called the Tiberius of France

from his cruelty and superstition. 80. What epoch does his reign mark in history? The triumph of absolutism. He scrupled at no treachery or deceit to overthrow feudalism and bring all classes in subjection to the crown. 81. Who was one of the most powerful enemies of the king? Charles the bold Duke of Burgundy. 82. What were his possessions? The Duchy of Burgundy and nearly the present kingdoms of Belgium and the Netherlands. He held the most splendid court in Europe. 83. What was

the result of their contentions? Charles was defeated in several engagements, and after his death and the last battle, Burgundy was re-annexed to the French dominions. 84. What did Louis wish Mary of Burgundy, the daughter of Charles, to do? As she still retained lands in the low countries, the king wished her to marry the Dauphin, his eldest son. 85. What did she do? She refused her consent and accepted the hand of Maximilian, son of the Emperor of Germany and Archduke of Austria.

1477. 86. What did this marriage bring about? A rivalry between France and the Empire, which lasted nearly two centuries. 87. What does the death of Louis mark? The close of the Middle Ages. 1483. 88. Who succeeded Louis XI? His son Charles VIII. 1483 to 1498. He was only 13 when he began to reign and was feeble both in body and mind and very ignorant. 89. For what was his reign notable? The invasion of Italy by the French. 90. What did he attempt to do? To assert the claim of

his house to the Kingdom of Naples. 91. What league was formed? The first extended league in modern history was formed by Milan, Venice, the Pope, Germany and Spain to expel the invader. 92. What was the result? After entering Naples in triumph, he retreated and escaped into France. 93. Who succeeded Charles VIII? Louis, Duke of Orleans with the title Louis XII. 94. What occupied most of his reign? Wars undertaken to acquire possession of territories in Italy. 95. What

heroic Frenchman commanded the army? Chevalier Bayard. 96. What was the result of the Italian invasion? The French were defeated. 97. What battle was fought with the English? The battle of the Spurs. 98. Why so called? Henry VIII of England invaded France and the French cavalry fled very rapidly before him. Chevalier Bayard was taken prisoner in this battle. 99. Who succeeded Louis XII? His cousin, Francis I, Duke of Angoulême. 100. What was his first enterprise? To recover Milan,

which he did in the battle of Marinano, totally defeating the Swiss mercenaries. 101. What treaty did he make with the Swiss Republic? A treaty known as the Perpetual Peace, which lasted as long as the old French monarchy. 102. What was now the leading power of Europe? Spain. 103. Who were candidates for the Imperial Crown? Charles V of Germany and Francis I. 104. What was the result of Charles' success? Francis became his bitter enemy and their rivalry

deluged Europe in blood for nearly 25 years. 105. What did both parties seek? The alliance of Henry VIII of England. 106. What is said of the meeting of the French and English kings near Calais? Fets of such extraordinary splendor were given that the place of the interview was called the Field of the Cloth of Gold. 107. What course was pursued by Henry? Owing to the intrigues of his minister, Cardinal Wolsey, whom Charles had won over, he declared in favor of the

emperor and they formed a league with the pope against Francis. 108. With whom did Francis quarrel? His great general, the Duke of Bourbon, Constable of France. 109. What was the result? Bourbon was taken into the service of the emperor. 110. What battle was fought in Italy? Battle of Pavia. Having besieged the place, Francis and his army, commanded by an incompetent general, were attacked by the imperialists under Bourbon and terribly defeated. 111. What happened to the

king? He was taken prisoner and carried to Spain, where he remained in captivity for a year and was only released when he ascended to the most humiliating conditions. 112. What did he do on regaining his liberty? He at once broke his promise and formed an alliance with the pope, Henry of England, and the Venetians to drive the imperialists out of Italy. 113. What now followed? The sack of Rome. Charles sent Bourbon into Italy with an army composed

partly of adventurers and bandits. Bourbon was shot in the first assault, but Rome was taken, and for seven months was a scene of violence and pillage. The city never had suffered from Goths and vandals as now, from the subjects of a Christian emperor, the pope in the meantime being kept a prisoner and treated with the grossest indignities. 114. With whom did Francis then make an alliance? The Turkish sultan, Suleiman the Magnificent, and many battles followed in Europe

and Africa with varying results. 115. What were the closing scenes of the war? Henry renewed his alliance with Charles, and they invaded France from opposite sides. Charles was defeated in a battle, but Henry pushed to within two days' march of Paris, when Francis sued for peace and the treaty of Crespi ended the war of 25 years. 116. Who succeeded Francis I? His son, Henry II. 117. What form of religion was taking root in France? Protestantism. 118. What were the Protestants

called? Huguenots. 119. Whom did Henry II marry? Catherine de' Medici, a descendant of Lorenzo de' Medici of the Florentine Republic. 120. How did the king celebrate her coronation with the bonfire of heretics? 121. What did the Huguenots claim? Freedom of worship. 122. What was the result? They were denied and organized a revolt which plunged France in civil war that lasted during the reigns of Henry's three sons. 123. Who were the Catholic leaders? Catherine, the Constable

Montmorency, and the two Guises, Francis the Duke and his brother the Cardinal of Lorraine. They were supported by the Church and Spain. 124. Who were the Huguenot leaders? The King of Navarre, the Prince of Condé, and Coligny, nephew of Montmorency. They were befriended by the reformers of Germany, England, and the Netherlands. 125. Who succeeded Henry II? Francis II, 1559 to 1560, a sickly boy of 16 who was ruled by his wife, the fascinating Mary Queen of Scots, and through

her by her uncles, the Guises. 126. What did they attempt to do? To destroy the Huguenots, but after a reign of 18 months, the King died. 127. Who succeeded him? Charles IX, a child of ten, and Catherine, the Queen Mother as regent, tried to hold the balance between the two parties. 128. What measures were adopted? Leaders of both religious parties were placed in the great offices of state. An entire freedom of religion was proclaimed by the states general and confirmed by a royal edict. 129. Was

this effectual? No. The Catholics becoming exasperated presented every concession to the Huguenots, while the Huguenots, growing exultant, often interrupted the worship and broke the images in the Catholic churches. 130. What was the result? A series of eight civil wars, which interrupted by seven short and unsteady treaties of peace, lasted over 30 years. 131. What led to the massacre of St. Bartholomew's Day? Coligny and other Protestant leaders gained such an influence over the King

that Catherine, seeing her power on the wane, entered into a conspiracy to assassinate them, and thus aroused the vengeance of the Huguenots so that a pretext might be found for their destruction. The plot failed, and she then wrung from the King his consent to the death of Coligny. 132. What followed? The massacre of St. Bartholomew on August 24, 1572. Before daybreak, Catherine gave the signal and bands of murderers thronged the streets. Coligny was the first victim,

and in Paris alone 10,000 persons perished, while in the provinces each city had its own Bartholomew. 133. What was the result? Many moderate Catholics joined the Protestants, and the King died at last, a victim of remorse. 134. Who succeeded Charles IX? Henry III, 1574 to 1589. Frivolous and vicious, he met with contempt on every side. 135. What caused his death? Having caused the assassination of the Duke of Guise, the leader of the Catholics, he was stabbed to the heart by a fanatic,

instigated by Guise's sister. 136. What ended with him? The House of Valois, a house distinguished for misfortunes. 137. What royal family now came into power? The House of Bourbon. 138. Who was the first Bourbon King? Henry of Navarre, under the title of Henry IV, 1589 to 1610. 139. What battle took place between the Huguenots and Catholics? The famous Battle of Ivry, where the Huguenots followed Henry's white plume to a signal victory.

140. What did he do finally, to end the struggle? He abjured Protestantism and declared himself satisfied of the truth of the Catholic faith. 141. What was the Edict of Nantes? An edict granted by the King in 1598, in which he confirmed the rights and privileges of the Huguenots, conferred upon them entire liberty of conscience, and admitted them to all offices of honor and emolument. 142. What did he do for France? With his famous minister Sully, he restored the finances,

erected public edifices, built ships, encouraged silk manufacture, and endowed schools and libraries. 143. What caused his death? He was assassinated in 1610 in the streets of Paris by a half-insane fanatic named Ravillac. 144. Who succeeded Henry IV, his son Louis XIII at the age of nine years? 145. Who administered the government during his minority? The Queen Mother, Maria de Medici, she squandered so much money upon her favorites that Sully resigned the office and went into

retirement. 146. What great man became the chief advisor of the King when he became of age? Cardinal Richelieu. 147. What did Richelieu determine to accomplish? To destroy the Huguenots as a party, to subdue the nobles, and to humble Austria. 148. How did he accomplish the first? By building a stone mole across the entrance to the harbor of Rochelle and shutting out the English fleet, Richelieu reduced that Huguenot stronghold. 149. How did he subdue the nobles? He destroyed the

feudal castles and attracted the nobles to Paris, where they became absorbed in the frivolities of the court, thus weakening their provincial power. 150. How did he humble Austria? By supporting the Protestants during the Thirty Years' War. 151. What conspiracies were formed against him? Many by the rebellious aristocracy who hated him, but he detected each plot and punished its authors with merciless severity. 152. What did he do for France? He made its power respected by every foreign

state. He was also a patron of science and literature, and he founded the French Academy. 153. Who succeeded Louis XIII? Louis XIV, 1643 to 1715, at the age of five years. 154. Who administered the government? Anne of Austria, the Queen Mother, became regent, and Mazarin, a former disciple of Richelieu, was appointed prime minister. 155. What was the result of renewed hostilities with Austria? Splendid victories were gained by

the French army under two renowned generals, Condé and Turenne. 156. What treaty closed this long war? The Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, by which the boundaries of France were settled nearly as they exist at present. 157. What took place on the death of Mazarin? Louis assumed the government and for over fifty years he was sole master in France. 158. What was his famous saying? I am the state, by which he claimed absolute right over the life

and property of every subject. 159. What gave him the title of the Grand Monarch? The vastness of his military enterprises, the grandeur of his plans for the internal improvement of his kingdom, his magnificent court ceremonial, and his patronage of literature and the arts and sciences. 160. What impolitic act did Louis commit? By the advice of Madame de Mantineau, whom he married after the death of the Queen Maria Theresa, he revoked the Edict of Nantes, 1685.

161. What followed? A fierce persecution of the Huguenots, which drove over 200,000 of the best artisans to foreign lands, whither they carried arts and industries hitherto known only to France. 162. What four great wars did Louis wage to gratify his ambition? War with Flanders, war with Holland, war of the Palatinate, and war of the Spanish succession. 163. What effect did these wars have upon France? The country was impoverished,

the revenues mortgaged for years in advance, and the industries destroyed. 164. What great palace did Louis XIV build? Versailles, at an expense of over 80 millions of dollars. 165. How was the latter part of the 17th century known? As the age of Louis XIV. 166. What was the relation of the king to art and literature? Poorly educated himself, being scarcely able to read and write, much less to spell. He was munificent in his rewards to men

of genius. A throng of writers, scientists, poets, and painters clustered about the throne. 167. Who became king at the death of Louis XIV? His great-grandson Louis XV, at the age of five. 168. What was the condition of France? The public debt was enormous, the government had no credit, and the regent, the duke of Orléans, was a man without honor or principle. 169. What followed? An era of vice. The world had not seen such a profligate court

since the days of the Roman emperors. War added hundreds of millions to the already hopeless debt, and Louis' death left the country plunged in anarchy and ruin. 170. Who succeeded Louis XV? His grandson Louis XVI, a good, well-meaning young man, but deficient in judgment and decision. 171. What caused great difficulty at once? The irreparable confusion of the finances. 172. Who was the queen? Marie Antoinette of the

hated House of Austria. 173. What was her character? Young and fascinating, she was thoughtless and extravagant. 174. What was the condition of the lower classes? They were overwhelmed by taxation, while the nobility and clergy, who owned two-thirds of the land, were exempt. Men were sent to prison without trial or charges and kept till death. The laws were enacted by those who considered the common people born for the use of the higher class.

175. What did the strife between classes awaken? An intense hatred. 176. What was the religious thought at this time? Skepticism prevailed, and all that is elevating in religion and morals was made the subject of ridicule. 177. What did all these conditions develop? The French Revolution. 178. How did the king try to meet the national difficulties? By choosing ministers of financial skill, among them the celebrated Necker, a banker of Geneva,

and finally by assenting to the Assembly of the States General, which had not met in 175 years. 179. What was the National Assembly? The third estate, or commons, proving to be the most powerful body in the States General, invited the nobles and clergy to join it and declared itself the National Assembly. 180. What course did the king take? The king and his ministers, dismayed at the determination of the commons, attempted to exclude them from the hall, whereupon they went to a

tennis court nearby and swore not to separate till they had given a constitution to France. 181. How did the king show his indecision? By sanctioning their measures and requesting the deputies of the clergy and nobility to meet with the commons. 182. What led to an insurrection in Paris? Large bodies of troops were collected by the court about Versailles to over awe the Assembly, and the Paris mob, excited by this menace to the people's representatives,

stormed the Bastille, a noted prison, and razed it to the ground. July 14, 1789. 183. What did the mob compel the royal family to do? To return to Paris from Versailles, where they were without any support, save the Swiss and German mercenaries. 184. What did the Assembly decree? The entire abolition of the principles and practices of the former government. 185. What was the Legislative Assembly? The National Assembly,

having adopted a constitution, adjourned, and a new body was chosen, called the Legislative Assembly, to which none of the members of the old Assembly were eligible. 186. What was the character of the Legislative Assembly? Most of its members were ignorant and brutal. The most respectable were the Girondins. The most bitter were the Jacobins. 187. Who were the leaders of the Jacobins? Robespierre, Danton, and Marat, noted for their wickedness and cruelty. 188. What further excited the

Parisian mob? Austria and Prussia declared war upon France in order to rescue the King. 189. To what did this lead? The Palace of the Tuileries, where the King lived, was sacked by the furious populace. The Swiss guards massacred, and Louis was sent to prison. 190. What course did the Jacobins now take? They arrested all who opposed their revolutionary projects, condemned, and massacred them in the most shocking manner.

191. What new assembly was organized? The National Convention. 192. What measures did it take? It formally abolished the monarchy and declared France a republic. September 1792. 193. What was one of its first acts? It tried the King for conspiracy against the liberties of France, condemned him to death, and caused him to be executed by the guillotine one week later, January 21, 1793. 194. What was then inaugurated? The Reign of Terror, during which thousands were

seized and hurried to the guillotine, among them the Queen Marie Antoinette. 195. What was the leaders in this? Marat was assassinated by Charlotte Corday, a young girl who gave up her life to rid her country of this monster. Danton, showing signs of relenting, was guillotined, and several months later the Reign of Terror ended by the execution of Robespierre himself. 196. What was the directory? A new constitution was now adopted by the Convention, and the

executive authority was entrusted to a directory consisting of five members. 197. What brought Napoleon Bonaparte into notice? The new constitution was opposed by several of the Parisian sections, divisions of the city, and an insurrection was threatened. Napoleon Bonaparte, a young officer, was selected to conduct the military operations against the insurgents. He dispersed them, leaving 500 on the pavement, and the people were subdued. 198. What command was given to Napoleon?

The command of the Army of Italy, although he was only 26 years old. 199. What did he achieve? A succession of brilliant victories over the Austrian armies, which ended in the Treaty of Campo Formio, 1797, in which Belgium was ceded to France and Austria allowed to take Venice. 200. What expedition did Bonaparte next undertake? An expedition to conquer Egypt as a means of attacking the commerce and power of England in the East. 201. What was the result?

He defeated the Turks in several battles and gained possession of the country, but was defeated himself in a naval battle with the English under Lord Nelson. 202. What did he find on his return to Paris? Foreign disgrace and domestic anarchy. A coalition had been formed against France by the great powers of Europe, and the Directory had become very unpopular. 203. How was the change in the government affected? At the point of the Bayonet, and a new constitution was adopted,

vesting the executive power in three consuls, Bonaparte and two others, elected for 10 years. 204. What military success did Bonaparte win as first consul? His brilliant victory over the Austrians at Marengo restored northern Italy to France. This was followed by a treaty of peace with England. 205. To what office was he elected? Consul for life. 206. What were some of his measures? He restored the Catholic Church. He established a uniform system of weights and measures,

known as the metric system. He formed the Napoleonic code of laws. He repaired old roads and built new ones, among which was the magnificent route over the Simplon Pass into Italy, even now the wonder of travelers. 207. What was Bonaparte's next advance? He caused himself to be declared by the legislature emperor of the French. The pope was present at the coronation, but when he lifted the crown, Napoleon took it from his hands and placed it on his own

head, and afterward crowned Josephine as empress. He subsequently caused himself to be crowned king of Italy. 208. What did Napoleon do for the next five years? He made war with Prussia, Russia, Austria and Spain, winning great victories and gaining new territory for France. 209. Where did he meet the English? In a naval battle off the coast of Cape Trafalgar, where he was defeated. 210. How did he ally himself with Austria? He divorced Josephine

and married Maria Luisa, daughter of the emperor of Austria. 211. What did he do in 1812? He invaded Russia with a half million of men because the emperor, Alexander, would not accede to his arbitrary demands. 212. What city did the French enter? Moscow. But the Russians had set it on fire before abandoning it, and the soldiers found no shelter from the approaching winter. 213. What compelled Napoleon to retreat from Moscow? His soldiers died by thousands of cold and hunger,

and as the Tsar refused peace, he had no other alternative. 214. What great officer distinguished himself at this time? Marshal Ney. He was called Bravest of the Brave. 215. What did Napoleon do during the retreat from Moscow? He abandoned the army and fled in disguise to Paris. 216. What was done in 1813? The powers of Europe united in a sixth confederation against France and Napoleon with a new army after three victorious battles was defeated in the Battle of the Nations

at Leipzig. 217. What occurred in 1814? The allied powers invaded France, entered Paris, and Napoleon, who had fled from the city, was obliged to abdicate the throne of France and Italy and to return to the island of Elba, which had been assigned him as a residence. 218. Who was placed on the throne? Louis XVIII, brother of Louis XVI. 219. What happened within a year? Napoleon escaped from Elba and hastened toward Paris.

He was received with enthusiasm by his troops and Marshal Ney, who had been sent to oppose his progress, deserted to him. 220. What did Louis do? He fled and Napoleon found himself again on the throne of France. 221. What step did the allied powers take? They collected three vast armies to oppose Napoleon. 222. Where was the decisive battle fought? At Waterloo, June 18, 1815, when the army under the Duke of Wellington repulsed the French and drove them into

irretrievable retreat and ruin. 223. What became of Napoleon? He fled to Paris and later surrendered himself to the commander of a British warship and was carried to England. By agreement of the allied sovereigns, he was sent a captive to the island of St. Helena, where he died six years after, at the age of 52. 224. What is said of his character and conduct? With the talents to have enabled him to confer the greatest blessings on his race, he chose to be at Scourge and sacrifice

to his selfish schemes every principle of benevolence and rectitude. During 19 years of almost constant war, he inflicted upon Europe the most appalling miseries. 225. What good has come out of his despotism? The patriotic efforts demanded to overthrow his power taught the nations of Europe to know their strength. 226. Where is his tomb? In 1840, his remains were carried to Paris and laid beneath a magnificent mausoleum connected with the Hotel des Anvalides.

227. What measures were adopted by the allies after the Battle of Waterloo? They entered Paris and the greater part of French territory was occupied by foreign armies. Louis XVIII was restored to the throne and Marshal Ney shot as a traitor. 228. Who succeeded Louis at his death? His brother Charles X, 1824 to 1830. 229. What occurred during his reign? He was bent on restoring bourbon despotism and his usurpations led to the revolution of the Three Days of July. The

Tuileries was sacked and the King fled. 230. Who was now elected King? His cousin, Duke of Orléans, received the crown as Louis Philippe, 1830 to 1848. 231. What was the outcome of his reign? The troubles caused by many conflicting parties and the King's selfish ambition culminated in the Revolution of 1848 when Louis Philippe lost heart and fled to England. 232. What government followed? A republic was proclaimed and Louis Napoleon, nephew of Napoleon

I, was chosen president for four years. 233. In what way did he become emperor? He plotted by the help of the army, a coup d'état, i.e. a stroke of state policy. His opponents were imprisoned and he was elected president for 10 years. Then he obtained the passage of a decree by the Senate, declaring him hereditary emperor. 234. What title did he take? Napoleon III. 235. What did he announce as his policy? The empire is peace.

236. How did he carry it out? In his reign of 18 years, he engaged in four wars, the Crimean, which brought him great glory, the Italian, the Mexican, and the Franco-Prussian, which caused his downfall. 237. What was the end of the Second Empire? The defeat of Napoleon at Sedan, when he surrendered with 80,000 men. The Empress Eugénie fled to England and the emperor died there in exile in 1873. 238. What did the German army do after Napoleon's defeat? They besieged Paris,

which surrendered after four months. 239. What government followed? The Third Republic with Thiers as president. 240. How was peace purchased by the French? By the cession of Alsace and part of Lorraine and a penalty of five billion francs. 241. What was the commune? In 1871, the Parisian rabble inaugurated a second reign of terror. Another siege of Paris followed more disastrous than the first, and the Tuileries and many of the finest public buildings were destroyed. 242. What is said

of the administration of Thiers? It was singularly successful, and the payment of the war penalty within two years excited the wonder of the world. End of chapter 10