menu_book Chapter 20

Section 20 of Genetic Studies of Genius, Volume 1, Manticore and Physical Traits of a Thousand Gifted Children by Lewis Turman. For more information or volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. Recorded by Leon Harvey. Chapter 19. Summary of Data on 309 Gifted High School Students The Data The purpose of this chapter is to summarise some of the more important data which have been secured for a group of 309 gifted subjects located in the high school survey described in Chapter 2.

These subjects belong to the group designated as Group 2. Group 2 is at the present writing, composed of 378 subjects, all of whom were selected on the basis of group test scores, 370 on the termed group test, 6 on the Army Alpha and 2 on the National. This group may not be quite as highly selected for intelligence, nor as homogeneous as the main experimental group. It is probable that the termed group test is more subject to the influence of schooling, environment, and previous acquaintance with the tests than is the Stanford-Binnett. Although the procedures to be used in locating and testing the subjects were laid down in considerable detail,

the fact that so many high school faculties participated in the survey, with but little immediate supervision necessary, affects the value of the results. However, 87 of the 309 subjects were located by the regular field assistants by a uniform procedure. Although the summary he presented is confined to a few of the most important items of information secured, it will be noted that the findings are throughout in general harmony with those for the main experimental group.

Effort was made to secure the following items of information for each subject of the high school group. 1. Term and group test score. 2. Score on the general information test. 3. The questionnaire test on players, games and amusements. 4. Record of books read during a period of two months.

5. Child's report on the interest blank. 6. Parents report on the home information blank. 7. Teachers report on the school information blank. Item 1 was secured for all, items 3 and 5, for about 90% of the group, and the remaining items for only 76%.

In addition, anathrometric measurements and medical examinations were secured for about 100 cases, or a third of all. All of the above items involved the use of the same blanks as were used in connection with the main experimental group. Perhaps the blanks were as suitable for one group as for the other, but for several reasons the data which they gave are probably less accurate for the high school group than for the main group. 1. The supervision of the child's work on items 2 to 5 was not entirely uniform.

2. The teachers were probably not well acquainted with their pupils, as is the average teacher in the elementary grades. 3. Since the high school subjects were older, the memory errors of parents in reporting facts regarding early development are likely to be greater. 4. Controlled data were not available. These serious disadvantages are only in part counterbalanced by the fact that the more fully developed personality the child of high school age makes possible greater accuracy of a report on many items concerning which information was sought from parents and teachers. The medical examinations, the anthropometric measurements, and the data on plays, games, and amusements have not been summarised for this group.

The data on the home blank, school blank, and interest blank have been summarised only in part. The reading interests of the group have been dealt with in Chapter 15. The data which have been analysed agree so closely with the results set forth for the main group that it has not seemed necessary to carry the analysis further than has been done. Intellectual composition of the group

It will be recorded that the method of selection required 1. That each high school teacher nominate the brightest, second brightest and youngest pupil in each of her classes and 2. that all the pupils thus nominated be given a term in a group test. The minimum TGT scores necessary for inclusion in the group are found on page 37. The standards of admission were based upon an examination of age distributions of TGT scores

reported for more than 100 high schools throughout the country and were intended to yield subjects who would rank within the top 1% of the general child population or within the top 2% of the high school population. The scores earned are shown in table 197. Table 197 is displayed on the page, termed group test scores of 309 high school pupils.

Since the high school survey was completed, 48 of the subjects chiefly of this group have taken the Thorndike Intelligence Examination for entrance to Stanford University. Their Thorndike scores ranged from 68 to 113, with an average of 89. The average score of entering students at Stanford over a period of two years was 71, and only about 8% score as high as the average of those who have entered from the gifted group. The average score of 14 Stanford professors on the same test was 95.

Sex Proportions The 309 subjects were distributed by age and sex as follows. A table displayed on the page comparing boys, girls and total to the number at each age. The proportion is 64.7% boys to 35.3% girls, or in the ratio of 183 boys to 100 girls. This is to be compared with the ratio of 116 boys to 100 girls in the main experimental group, C Chapter 3.

In both groups, the preponderance of boys is marked, but is far greater in the high school group and is found at every age. The excess of boys in the high school group as compared with the main experimental pre-high school group might be explained as due to one or more of the following factors. 1. Nominations in the grades below the high school were practically all made by women teachers, while roughly a third of the nominations in the high school were made by men teachers.

It might be supposed that the latter would be more inclined to favour boys in their nominations. Unfortunately, the nomination blanks used in the high schools were not always returned to us with the other data, and it was impossible to determine whether a sex preference had entered into the nominations. 2. The term and group test may do injustice to the intelligence of girls. This hypothesis is contradicted by the fact that mean TGT scores of unselected girls of ages 12, 13, and 14

have been found to be about as high as those for unselected boys. 3. It may be that the excess of boys in all gifted groups is due to greater male variability. Considerable evidence could be assembled from test results in support of this hypothesis, but the findings are far from consistent. 4. It may be that the mental development of boys continues after that of girls has ceased,

which, if true, could give a marked excess of gifted boys in the operators. This may account for the difference between high school group and main experimental group in sex ratio, although the increase by age in the ratio of boys to girls is not as regular and consistent as this hypothesis would lead one to expect. Whatever the cause, it seems that in the years of middle and lateral adolescence, there is a large excess of high-scoring boys. In the case of Stanford students, given the Thorndike Intelligence Examination,

the 99th percentile for 754 consecutive male entrants was 105.7, and for 150 consecutive female entrants, 99.7. Nor was saying the fact that women students at Stanford, owing to the limitation of 500 in their number, are far more highly selected than the men.

Only one woman tested as high as 110, while six men made scores ranging from 110 to 124. Book's survey of 5,748 seniors in the high schools of Indiana, based upon a test somewhat similar to the Army Alpha, also gave a significant success of high-scoring boys, especially in the upper ages. Dr. Yates using the Army Alpha and the Termin Group test located the 25 brightest seniors in five Oakland high schools.

Her group yielded 15 boys and 10 girls, a ratio of 150 to 100. Geographical location of pupils. Requests for cooperation were sent to all the high schools in the state, numbering at that time, autumn 1921, approximately 364. The principals of 103 agreed to cooperate and were supplied with the requisite blanks and instructions. A report was made to us by 95 schools, having a total enrolment of approximately 70,000 pupils.

The schools may be grouped by counties as follows. A table is displayed on the page comparing the division to the counties included. The following countries, having a total enrollment of 6,465 high school pupils, were not surveyed. A table displayed on the page comparing counties with the number not surveyed. Table 198 shows comparative percentages of pupils qualifying in the various geographical divisions,

and Table 199, the percent qualifying in high schools of various sizes. The figures of both these tables are affected by so many unknown factors that they are rather misleading. Table 198 is displayed on the page, percentages of gifted high school subjects by geographical location. In the first place, it cannot be assumed that the research was equally thorough in all the schools. The procedure may not always have been exactly uniform, and even apart from this, it is probable that pupils in the smaller schools stood a better chance of being discovered from the mere fact that their teachers knew them better.

In some of the schools, all the pupils were tested. In others, only those nominated according to instructions. Possibly in the case of a few high schools, not all the four grades were covered. Finally, there are probably some inconsistencies in the reports of enrolment, according to whether part-time students were or were not included.

Possibly in a few cases, 7th and 8th grade pupils of junior high schools were erroneously included in the enrolment reports. Nevertheless, the figures are given for whatever they may be worth. The totals of Table 1 to 99 do not agree with those of Table 1 to 98. This is due to the omission from Table 1 to 99 of certain schools for which the percentages were known not to be representative,

owing to incompleteness of the survey or to other distributing factors. Table 1 to 99 is displayed on the page. Percentages of qualifying subjects in high schools of various sizes. It will be noted that someone less than one-half of 1% of the pupils enrolled in these high schools qualified. According to this figure, the total enrollment of 220,000 in California high schools in 1921-22 might have yielded about 1,000 cases of the desired degree of superiority.

However, we cannot safely assume that the proportion of gifted would have been the same in the schools not coded. and there is no way to estimate the number who were missed in the schools that were covered. Perhaps a liberal estimate would be that not more than one pupil in a hundred in the high schools of California could have qualified. However, since high school students are in a group rather highly selected,

it is probable that most of these 309 subjects belong to the top one half of 1% of the total child population of their representative ages in California. This would make the group only a little less highly selected than the main experimental group. Ancestry Information was given in the home blank regarding the ancestry of 241 of the 309 subjects.

The data were treated as were the corresponding data for the main group, one unit of weight being assigned to each of the great-grandparents. The results are shown in table 200. American in this table means descended from the old American stock, usually colonial, not clearly specified.

Probably a large majority of cases it means English. The percents are sums of the blood percent of each nationality. Table 200 is displayed on the page. Nationality origin of gifted children in the high school group. Table 201 shows the percent of subjects in the group

who are represented in the various nationalities by at least one parent, one grandparent, or one great-grandparent. Table 201 is displayed on the page. number of percent of children representing various nationalities. Figure 34 is displayed on the page,

both places of parents and grandparents of high school gifted group. The above figures, like those for the main group, cannot be accurately interpreted in the absence of comparative figures for the general population. However, certain facts stand out as clearly significant. For example, in Table 200,

the high percentage of English, Scotch, German, Irish, Dutch and Jewish blood, and a low percentage of Spanish and Italian. The Spanish percentage, 0.13%, is especially low in comparison with the amount of Spanish blood in the general population. No Negro blood is represented. The birthplaces of 242 subjects were stated.

Of this number, exactly half were born outside of California, of whom seven were born outside the United States. Table 202 gives the birthplaces of 482 parents and 609 grandparents. This table and accompanying map, figure 34, are extremely interesting. These children are drawn to the main from seven national stocks, coming originally from Northwest Europe and from the Jewish racial stock

who have immigrated from Russia and Germany. Table 202 is displayed on the page, birthplaces of parents and grandparents of high school gifted group. The movement of the representatives of these stocks to California has been very rapid and they've come, one, direct from Europe, two, direct from the northeast United States,

or three, from the northeast United States, with one or more stops in the Central Valley. The Latin stocks and races, other than the Caucasian, are for all practical purposes unrepresented. While this, in no sense, proves their inferiority, it renders such our hypothesis reasonable. Of parents, 409 or 86.7% were born in the United States. and of these, 388.2% of all were born outside of California.

There were 22 cases in which both parents were foreign-born, and 28 in which one was foreign-born. Of grandparents, 63% were born in the United States, and 94% of the entire number outside of California. Of the grandparent couples, both members were foreign-born in 27.3% of cases,

and one member in 11.4% of cases. Occupational Background For 235 children, information was obtained regarding the various occupations which the father, mother, uncles, aunts and grandparents had followed. This information is summarised in Table 203. As would be expected, the data are less complete for uncles, aunts and grandparents than for parents.

The most common occupation of maternal relative, that of housewife, is not included in Table 203. 203. Attention is called to the fact that the figures included for a given relative all the main occupations which that relative has followed. If a count has been taken only the last occupation followed, this showing would ordinarily have been even better than it was. The percents of table 203 are therefore not percents of individuals, but percents of all occupations which have been

followed. A quantitative index of the occupational background has been obtained by rating on the bar scale of occupational intelligence, each occupation named. Mr. Willoughby attempted a refinement of this index by a system of weights which gave greater value to the occupation of a parent than of a grandparent or parent sib, and greater value to the present than to an early occupation of the father. Table 2 onto 3 is displayed on the page, occupations followed by

relatives of high school group. However, when such a system of weights was applied to a sampling of families, the resulting occupational index differed by only about 7% from that based upon all unweighted average. Accordingly, the index of occupational background used was simply the average bar ratings of all the occupations which parents, grandparents, uncles and aunts had followed. This mean index found was 11.8 as compared with an average of 8.8 for the general

population of San Francisco, Oakland, and Los Angeles. For the derivation of occupational index for general population, see chapter 4. The average of 11.8 is slightly lower than that found for the fathers of the children of the main group, 12.77. This would be expected in view of the fact that for the high school group, the index is based upon all the occupations which have been followed by near relatives, not upon the present occupation of the father. Occupations which rate approximately

the same as the average of all occupations for relatives of the high school group are Stenographer 11.7, Librarian and Small Library 12.0, The Graduate Nurse 12.0. Figure 35 gives a distribution of the occupational background indices for the 235 children, the index for each child being the average rating of all near relatives. It will be noted that only a single child has an occupational background index below the average bar rating of 8.8, found in Chapter 4 for the general male adult population.

One may conclude that if the father of a gifted child follows a lowly occupation, the probability is that the average occupational rating of his other new relatives will be higher. That is, in such a case the family stock is probably somewhat better than the humble occupation of the father would suggest. Figure 35 is displayed on the page, occupational background indices and bar ratings of preferred occupations. Health and Physical Data Although medical examinations and anthropometric measurements were given to approximately 100 of the high school subjects,

the only data here summarised are those furnished by the home blank and school blank. Health and Energy Ratings Parents and teachers rated the subjects on the 25 traits named in Chapter 18 and by the same method. The ratings on general health and on physical energy are summarised in table 204. In this case, the ratings were scored from 1 to 7, 1 being the highest rating, 7 lowest, and 4 average.

The certainity of ratings were scored from 1 to 4, 1 meaning very certain, 2 fairly certain, 3 rather uncertain, and 4 very uncertain. Table 204 is displayed on the page, health and energy ratings of high school group. That is, both parents and teachers, with a rather high degree of certainty regarding the correctness of their judgments, rate these subjects considerably above average in health and physical energy. The mean rating for the girls is appreciably higher than that for the boys on both traits. In health, only 4% were rated by the parents more than half a step below average, and only 5.5% by the teachers.

In energy, the parents rate 2% this low. The teachers 7%. Age of parents at birth of child. The mean age of father at birth of child was 324 of mother 29.1. The distribution of ages is as follows. A small table is split on the page comparing the father to the mother to ages and mean.

Duration of pregnancy. This was normal in 90% of cases. 14 or 6% of the births were reported as premature by one half month or more. 8 or 3.4% were reported as overtime. Mother's health during pregnancy

Statements made on this point were converted into ratings on a five-point scale, while signifying excellent, 3 average and 5 very poor. The distribution of the ratings was as follows. Rating 1, frequency 59. Rating 2, frequency 107.

Rating 3, frequency 42 Rating 4, frequency 23 Rating 5, frequency 6 Mean 2.2 Conditions of birth

Birth was described as difficult, severe, prolonged, instrumental delivery, etc. for 55% of boys and 33% of girls as easy for 9% of boys and 12% of girls The more important cases of difficult birth were as follows A list is displayed on the page with difficult birth symptoms.

Birth weight Birth weights reported ranged from 3 to 15 pounds, with an average of 8 pounds, 6.4 ounces for boys, and 8 pounds, 3.2 ounces for girls. These figures, like those for the main group, are considerably above the average, especially the mean for girls. Infant feeding Approximately 91% of the children were at least partially breastfed

and about 65% were exclusively breastfed for a period of 10 months or longer. These figures are even higher than those for the main group. Health during first year Statements on this point have been converted to ratings on a 5.1 scale with the following results. A table is played on the page comparing the rating for boys and girls to the score.

Dentition, walking and talking The mean age of appearance for first tooth was 7.3 months for boys and 7.2 months for girls. The range was from 5 to 14 months. Table 205 gives the distribution of ages for walking alone, several steps, and table 204 for talking, shorter sentences. Owing to the descriptive terms used in the blank, the data of table 205 are, unfortunately, not comparable with data which have been reported for unsolested children.

They are, however, comparable with the data of a main group of gifted subjects. Chapter 8. The agreement with the latter is very close. Table 205 is displayed on the page, Age of Walking Alone, Several Steps, High School Group. And Table 206 is displayed on the page, Age of Talking, Short Sentences, High School Group. The figures for Dentition agree very closely with those for the main group,

but those for walking and talking are much lower for the high school group. The fact that a baby book was kept by the mother for 35% of the boys and for 32% of the girls is of interesting connection with the question of accuracy of data finished by the home blank on this and other items of information relating to the early development of these subjects. Organic diseases reported by teachers Information reported by the teachers on this point is probably very incomplete and inaccurate, as health records based upon examination by a school physician or a school nurse

were available for only 40% of the boys and 71% of the girls. Few indications of imperfect health were reported, and many of these were of minor importance. In all 20% or 8% were reported for organic defects, several of which had been outgrown. These were as follows. Heart trouble, not described, 8 cases

Heart trouble, slight or outgrown, 4 cases Indications of lung trouble, 2 cases Apparent recovery from tuberculosis, 1 case Kidneys weak, 1 case Formal kidney trouble, 1 case

Stomach trouble, 2 cases Asthma, 1 case Symptoms of general weakness One or more such symptoms were reported by the home of 13% of the boys, 14% of the girls and 13.6% of total by the school for 21% of boys, 19% of girls and 20% of turtle.

The main cinemas reported under this heading have been grouped as follows. 1. Thin, slight, underweight, etc. 4. Reported by the home, 15. Reported by the school. 2. Rapid growth, lack of energy, easily fatigued, low vitality, etc. 5. Reported by the home, 8. Reported by the school.

3. Anemia, poor appetite, indigestion, biliousness, stomach trouble, etc. 2. Reported by the home, 5. Reported by the school 4. Colds, cataract, asthma, etc. 6. Reported by the home, 1. Reported by the school In addition to the symptoms listed above, the home reported one case of each of the following

Subnormal temperature, tonsil trouble, headaches, bad teeth Other symptoms reported by the school included from one to two cases of each of the following. Poor colour, eye trouble, legs not developed, nervous, boils, acne, overweight and perfect recovery from injury to skull. Vision and hearing. According to school reports, 49% of the boys and 50% of the girls have had the eyes tested.

School reports rate the vision as follows. A table is played on the page comparing the boys and girls to the rating for vision. Of boys and girls combined, the school rates the vision of 27.9% as either somewhat defective or very poor. The home, 22.3%. Of the boys with the defective vision, home reports, 90% wearing glasses are either part or all of the time.

Of the girls with defective vision, 75%. Reports from the school agree closely with those of the home on this point. Hearing was rated by the teachers as follows. A table displayed on the page comparing the ratings for boys and girls. Ratings on nutrition

Nutrition was rated by the parents as follows. A table displayed on the page comparing the ratings for boys and girls. History of serious digestive trouble was reported by the parents for 15% of the boys and 16.8% of the girls. Headaches The following data on frequency of headaches were reported by the parents.

Table of the page displaying the comparisons of boys to girls. Respiratory troubles Information on persistent mouth breathing was reported both by parents and teachers. Table is split on the page comparing the parents' ratings for boys and girls to the teachers' rating for boys and girls. Both parents and teachers reported on adenoid and tonsil trouble, but the information of the teachers was evidently very incomplete, as they reported only about two-thirds as many cases as the parents.

The following figures are based upon the information furnished by parents. A table is displayed on the page comparing the boys and girls' percentile ratings for tonsils. Parents report as follows on the frequency of colds. A table is displayed on the page comparing the boys' and girls' ratings. The teachers report 13.5% of the boys, 15% of the girls, or 14% of the total group is having colds frequently or very frequently.

The corresponding figures for the parents' reports are almost identical. 13.6%, 15.9%, and 14.5%. Nervous symptoms. The question, is child especially nervous, was answered a firm relief by parents and teachers as follows.

A table is played on the page comparing the ratings by its percentage by parents and teachers. The symptoms of nervousness mentioned were frequently described as slight or outgrown and belonged to such types as those reported for the main group.

Chapter 8. Parents report 5 boys, 3.3%, and no girls as having had a history of stuttering. All but one of these, 5 cases, are described as mild. The school reports 5 boys and 3 girls, and describes 7 of the 8 cases as mild, outgrown, or occasional. Parents report 2 cases of chorea, both boys.

One occurred at age 6, and was very mild, the other at 7, and was severe. Parents report a history of habitual muscular twitching for 7 boys 4.6% and 4 girls 4.5%. Marked tendency to worry is reported as follows, by parents for 6% of boys and 9% of girls, by the school for 4.5% of boys and 12.5% of girls. More than half the cases of worry were ascribed to causes relating to the school.

There were three children ascribed as overly consciousness or as having too great desire to excel, all of whom were girls. The parents report 6 boys 4% and 10 girls 11.4% as having a history of marked fears. Most of these have been outgrown. Parents report 9 boys 6% and 7 girls 8% as having had a night terrors for the most part occasional or mild. Sleep. Only 3 boys and 2 girls were reported as not sleeping well. The boys sleep on average 9 hours and 10 minutes daily. The

girls 9 hours and 15 minutes, or about a quarter of an hour above the term and hawking norms for unselected children. The average time spent in bed is about 9 minutes more than this. Contagious Diseases. Table 207 gives the percent reported by the parents as having had various contagious diseases and the proportion of cases described as severe. Table 207 is displayed on the page, Incidents of Contagious Diseases in High School Group. The fact that of these 242 children

living in one of the most unhealthful states in the union, 31 should have had scarlet fever, 9, diphtheria, 7, typhoid, 6, smallpox, and 3, infantile paralysis, indicates that these early preventable diseases are responsible for the loss of a considerable number of gifted individuals in the country as a whole. Accidents. Accidents of greater or less severity were reported for 47.8% of boys and 24.1% of girls. Bone fractures have been suffered by 13.6% of boys and 10% of

girls. Sexual maturity. The information on this point for the girls relates to age of first menstruation as reported by the parents. The number having reached any given age who have matured before that age is as follows. A table is displayed on the page comparing the age to the numbers who have reached puberty. The above figures like those given in chapter 8 for the main group indicate that intellectually gifted girls tend to mature considerably earlier on

the average than unselected girls. The question asked parents regarding age which change of voices occurred with boys was too often misunderstood to justify a statistical summary of the replies. Educational history. School progress. The age grade status of the 309 children at the time they were located is shown in table 208. Table 208 is displayed on the page, age grade status of high school gift group. Regarding children who are 14 years old, but not yet 16, as normally

advanced for the 9th grade, children of 15, but not yet 17, as normally advanced for the 10th, etc., we have the following percentages of retired, normal, and accelerated progress. Boys, 8.5% retarded, 48.5% normal, 43% accelerated, 15.5% accelerated two years or more. Girls, 0% retarded, 45% normal, 55% accelerated, 15% accelerated two years or more. Kindergarten was attended by 35% of boys and 33% of girls.

The average period of kindergarten attendance for these being almost exactly a school year. 15 entered school in the 2nd grade, 7 in the 3rd, 6 in the 4th and 3 in the 5th. The mean age of school entrants above kindergarten was 6.2 years for boys and 6.4 years for girls. One child entered the 1st grade at 4 and 25 at 5. One entered the 2nd grade and one the 3rd grade at 5.

One entered the 3rd and one the 4th at 6. The detailed facts are shown in Table 209 regarding the 231 subjects for whom a report was made. Table 209 is displayed on the page. Age and grade of high school gifted group on entering school. Strictly speaking, one may consider the child retarded who does not enter the first grade before seven, a second before eight, etc.

On this basis, 44 children on table 209 were retired on entrance. On the usual basis of figuring, which is more lenient by one year, only three were retarded. Of the 44 who in the strict standard were retarded, there were 17 who at the time of this investigation had not made up any of this initial handicap. This shows the marked tendency to lockstep in the average public school. If we include initial skipping at school entrance, 68% of the boys and 73% of the girls have skipped one or more half grades.

The boys have skipped an average of 2.8 half grades, the girls 2.4 half grades. There were 17 children who had repeated a half grade, but none who had repeated two half grades. According to the statements of parents, 19% of the boys and 24% of the girls have been encouraged to forge ahead. 74% of boys and 69% of girls have been allowed to take their own pace, and 7% of both boys and girls have been held back. These statements refer entirely to the attitude of the parents.

33 of the children have attended two schools, 63, 3, 53, 4, 55, 5, 28, 6, and 1 each, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12, and 15. The average number of schools attended was 4.1. School attendance has been fairly regular for the large majority. The average number of days lost during the past year, based on parents' estimates, was 5.8 for boys and 8.6 for girls. For girls of ages 13, 14 and 15 combined, the average loss of time was 7.6 days.

For girls of ages 16, 17 and 18 combined, 9.3. The reports indicated that this increase is probably due to menstrual troubles. Liking for school was rated by the parents as follows. Boys, number 152. 60% very strong, 36% fairly strong, 3% slight liking, 1% positive dislike.

Girls, number 87, 70% very strong, 28% fairly strong, 2% slight liking, 0% positive dislike. The boys were devoting on an average 5.9 hours per week to the home study of school lessons at the time of the investigation. The girls, 6.8 hours. The older children of both sexes were devoting about an hour a week more to home study than were the younger children. Of the boys, 53% learned to read before starting to school.

of the girls 47.5%. Four learned to read before the age of four years and 14 before five. The number of books in the homes from which these children come ranges from 0 to 3,500 volumes with an average of 380. There were 24 home libraries of the 1,000 volumes or more

and 15 or fewer than 50. 57% of the boys and 46% of the girls had shown unusual interest in encyclopedias. 53% of the boys and 23% of the girls in atlases 41.5% of the boys and 34% of the girls in dictionaries Table 210 shows the number of children of the 242

for whom reports were available who were taking private instruction in various subjects also the parents' rating of ability shown in such instruction It will be noted that very superior ability is shown in these special subjects by only 7 boys and 7 girls, or 6% and 7% respectively, of their number taking special instruction.

Table 210 is displayed on the page. Special subjects studied an ability shown by high school group. The parents were asked to state what principles or rules guided them in regard to 1. Answering the child's questions. 2. Stimulating a desire to learn.

3. Other matters they had considered important in the training of their children. On the first point, 212 answers were recorded. of which 187 were unreservedly affirmative, fully, carefully, to the best of my ability, thoughtfully, seriously, immediately, etc. The remaining were affirmative, but with some qualification. In regard to 2, stimulating desire to learn, 176 answers were received,

which may be classified as follows. Yes, 49, no, 10, not necessary. Showed natural ability, was eager to learn, etc. 39. By showing pleasure at success, by commendation, encouragement, etc. 17.

By exhortation on the value of knowledge, power of education, emulation of great men, etc. 12. By making work interesting, 10. By cooperating,

treating as intellectual equals, etc. 8. By providing books and material, 8. By encouraging initiative and research, 7. Miscellaneous, 9.

The other matters considered important, 3, were classified by units of response rather than by individuals. For example, health and morals counted as one under each head. There were 186 units, which had been classified as follows. Religion, manners, morals, character, etc. 29. Health, food, clothing, sleep, etc. 25.

Truthfulness, honesty, 17. Supplying and supervising books, recreation, etc. 12. Inculcating, thoroughness, perseverance, etc. 11 Treating sympathetically as responsible, equal, etc.

11 Chivalry, ideals, honour, etc. 6 Social companions, activities, fair play, 4 Miscellaneous, 71

Tests of General Information Achievement tests were not given to the high school group. The admission was practically due to limitations of time and funds, but chiefly to the fact that few satisfactory standard tests were available in the high school subjects. The general information test, described in Chapter 11, was used instead.

This test had a reliability of 0.95 for unselected children of the age group 14 or the age group 15, and correlates between 0.80 and 0.90 with the termed group test. The means for the separate parts of the test are shown in Table 211. As the number of girls of the various ages in the high school group is small, the sexes have been combined. Control data are available for the ages 12 and 13, see chapter 11, and the means of those ages for the control group are placed in the parenthesis for comparison.

These means are extremely high, as will be seen by comparison with the norms in parenthesis for unselected children. For example, the mean total score for the 12 year old gifted group is above the mean for the control group at the same age by 2.31 times the standard deviation of the latter. The mean total for 13 year old gifted is above that of the 13 year old control group by 2.1 times the standard deviation of the latter. The mean for both the 12 year old and the 13 year old high school gifted groups is slightly higher than the mean for the main gifted groups of corresponding age. From Table 212, which gives the total score distributions for 12 and 13-year-olds of

A. The high school gifted group, B. The main gifted group, and C. The control group. It will be seen that only 1 of 53 control children of 12 years reaches the 12-year mean for the high school gifted, and only 2 of 91 control 13-year-olds reaches the 13-year mean for the high school gifted. Table 211 is displayed on the page. mean scores on the information test by our school group.

Information quadrants have not been computed for the high school gifted group, but it is evident from the data which have been presented that this group ranks as far above unselected children in general information as do the children of the main experimental group. Two of the high school gifted group obtained a perfect score in the science section of the test.

The numbers were too small to afford reliable sex comparisons, but the mean showed the following tendencies. Science and Nature, Study, Boys Appreciably Superior History and Civics, Boys Slightly Superior Language and Literature, Girls Slightly Superior

Music and Art, Girls Slightly Superior Total Score, Boys Slightly Superior Table 212 displayed on the page Distribution of Information and Scores of 12 and 13 year olds gifted in control Scholastic Preferences

Determining the Intellectual Demands of the School Subjects The high school pupils, like those in the main group, were asked in the interest blank to rate each school subject on a scale from 1 to 5 to indicate degree of preference, also to indicate the easiest subject. Mr Willoughby undertook to derive a scale of intelligence values of the different school subjects, analogous to the bar scale of intelligence values for occupations. That some school subjects make heavier demands upon intelligence than others will be generally agreed, but judges differ considerably in estimating the relative extent of these demands. Obviously, a scale of values based upon the estimates of many qualified judges will have greater validity than one based on the estimates of a single judge.

Accordingly, estimates were secured from 25 individuals, 13 men and 12 women, including 1 private school teacher, graduate student in education, 3 years experience 1 high school teacher, sophomore, 1 sophomore, no teaching experience 2 heads of psychology departments, 1 in a western university, the other in an eastern women's college 1 private school teacher of classics, 35 years experience

One dean of a coloured girls seminary. 30 years experience. Undergraduate in education. Two undergraduates in education. Selected by the latter.

One high school teacher. Experience unknown. Undergraduate in education. One coloured school and army teacher. Five years experience.

Undergraduate in education. One undergraduate in education. Selected by the latter. One college ex-president. Director of a bureau of economic research.

One university professor of psychology. Four graduates in psychology, research assistants. One undergraduate, research assistant. One high school teacher of science, about five years' experience. One superintendent of schools, graduate in education.

One coloured school teacher, two years' experience. One high school and one grade school teacher, exact experience unknown but extensive. One university graduate, librarian. Each of the 25 judges arranged the 48 subjects in a rank order according to the demands they were believed to make upon intelligence. The usual treatment of such data has been assigned PE values directly from the rank order comparisons,

according to the percent of judges who place a given subject higher or lower than another given subject. For example, according to Thorndike's table, if 80% of judges placed algebra above bookkeeping, then algebra is 1.25 PE above bookkeeping. There are objections, however, to this method. In the case of algebra and bookkeeping, for example, when the two are compared directly, algebra is 1.25 higher. But when they are compared by comparing each with a third subject, or a third and a fourth, the previously ascertained position is moved.

Another difficulty of the direct comparison method is encountered in the fact that sometimes a given subject is placed above or below another given subject by 100% of the judges, in which case it is impossible to determine on the basis the PE distance between them. In view of these difficulties, the direct comparison method was abandoned in favour of the method of group comparison. First, the school subject was found which had the most nearly central position with respect to all the others. This proved to be dramatics. Next step was to ascertain the distance of each of the other subjects above or below dramatics,

taking account not only of the direct comparison between dramatics and the given subject, called subject X, but also of the position of subject X with reference to other subjects which are being compared with dramatics. The steps were as follows. 1. Each subject was placed in a group composed of all the subjects with which it could be directly compared. Two subjects were comparable, in the sense in which the term is here used,

when the judges were not unanimous as to their relative positions. If 100% of the judges place a given subject above another given subject, there is no way to determine the PE distance between them, and they are not really comparable. This gave as many groups as there were subjects, no two groups being exactly identical. The number of subjects in a group was usually between 15 and 30.

subject X, let us say, was comparable with 20 subjects. 2. The next step was to ascertain the mean PE distance of the subjects of a given group from dramatics, the point of reference. In the case of the X group in our illustration, the PE distance of each of the 20 subjects from dramatics was found and the mean of these distances computed. 3. Next, the distance of subject X from the mean of the X group was found. Supposed this to be

minus 0.6 PE. This added algebraically to 1.8 PE gives plus 1.2, which is the best approximation of the true distance of subject X from dramatics. Carrying out this computation for all the subjects gave the PE values of table 213. Table 213 is displayed on the page, intellectual demands on the school subjects. Pupils ratings are school subjects for preference and ease. By the use of above scale of values it is possible to compute the correlation between the absolute difficulty

of subject and the extent to which the children liked them or called them easy. Each pupil of the high school group rated from 1 to 5 according to liking the subjects which he had taken. The rating 1 meant that the subject was liked very much, 3 that it was neither liked nor disliked, 5 that it was disliked very much. Table 214 shows the percentage of 1, 3 and 5 preference ratings for each subject, also the percent of rated subjects which were checked as very easy

or easiest of all, according to the instructions on the pupil's interest blanks. Table 214 is displayed on the page, ratings of subject for preference and ease. The mathematics group is by far the best liked and easiest group. Exceptionally well liked subjects in other groups are chemistry, physics, dramatics and sports. The art group is the least liked and the hardest for these children.

The subjects most often disliked are penmanship, sewing, physiology and folk dancing. However, 53% of the pupils did not rate any subject as disliked very much. At the opposite extreme, there was only one pupil who rated no subject as liked very much. The correlation between the intellectual difficulty of the subjects, Willoughby's scale values, and the percent of 1s in the preference ratings was plus 0.138 standard deviation 0.099.

The mean Willoughby scale values of the subjects checked as very easy was plus 0.67 for boys and plus 0.03 for girls. The correlation between the Willoughby scale values of the subjects and the percent checking the various subjects as very easy was minus 0.384, standard deviation 0.081. That is, the less intelligence a subject demands, according to competent judges, the harder it is for these pupils, and the less they like it. The more intelligence it demands, the easier it is, and the better they like it. After all, perhaps this is the logical expectation for pupils of such a superior intellectual endowment.

The relationship between the percent who rated subject 1 for preference, and the percent who rated very easy, can also be found on table 214. The correlation between the second column and the fifth column is plus 0.753, standard deviation 0.044. However, this rather high correlation does not tell us whether a subject is liked by a given pupil because it is easy for him,

or whether it is easy for him because he likes it. Vocational Preferences The vocational preferences were expressed on the interest blank by 196 boys and 87 girls of the high school group. The method was the same as they used with the main group.

The subject was asked to mark with two crosses the vocation he would most like to follow, of 96 listed, and to mark with a single cross the other occupations he might like to follow. The first choices were distributed as follows. A list is displayed on the page, comparing a list of professions with boys and girls. The above preferences do not tell us what occupations these subjects will follow,

but they are probably fairly good indications of the general directions of which future choices will be made. It is significant that 33.6% of the boys are looking forward to some field of engineering and 13.2% to science. Engineering and the physical sciences together account for 90 choices, or almost half. Law follows with 14 choices, writing with 12, and medicine with 10. Approximately 35% of the girls' choices go to teaching, 10% to writing, and 8% to music.

The average bar scale rating of the occupational choices of the entire group is 14.63. This about corresponds to the level of a secretary or high school teacher, and is the whole lower than the majority of the group ought to aspire. The occupations marked as possible choices cover a wide range. The boys marked on an average 3.8 occupations as possible choices. The girls 2.2.

In both cases, the average bar rating of these choices is considerably below that of the first choices. Figure 35, page 570, shows the distribution of bar ratings of occupational preferences of the pupils and also the distribution of the occupations followed by near relatives. The average bar rating of A is 14.63, of B 14.1, of C 11.8. Average for the general male population of the larger California cities is 8.8.

See page 70. The average for girls is lower by about one point than that for boys. 81 girls answered the question, Do you prefer the duties of housewife to those of any other occupation? The answer is, well decorated with exclamation points and underscorings,

were not in the least indecisive. The no's have it. 71% to 19%. Does the boy or girl whose occupational choice rates high on the vast scale tend to prefer the school subjects which make most intellectual demands.

In order to answer this question, the correlation was computed between bar-scale ratings of preferred occupation and the Willoughby-scale ratings of scholastic preferences. The correlation found was 0.192, which is low but perhaps significant. Summary The chapter deals with a group of 309 gifted high school pupils,

located chiefly through cooperative surveys made by high school faculty throughout California. Final selection was based upon term and group test scores earned by pupils who had been nominated by teachers. Probably most of the subjects so selected are as intelligent as the brightest in 200 taken at random. Their ages range from 12 to 21, with an average of 15 years, 3.4 months. Only a small part of the information collected for the group has been summarised.

Some of the more important facts are as follows. 1. The sex ratio is 183 boys to 100 girls, as compared with 116 boys to 100 girls in the main group. It is suggested that the proportion of higher scoring girls may decrease as adulthood is approached. 2. The main group is compared with the general population of California as a deficiency of subjects in Latin, Negro and Indian extraction, and excess of Jewish blood. Immigration has been chiefly from Northwestern and Western Europe, through New England and New York, and thence through the northern tier of Middle West states to California.

Bar-scarled ratings of the occupations, followed by the parents and other near relatives of this group, gave results in line with those found for the main experimental group. 3. The mean age of fathers at the time of child's birth was 32.4 of mothers 29.1. 4. 6% of the births are said to have been premature, 3.4% overtime. Average birth rate reported was 8 pounds 6.4 ounces for boys and 8 pounds 3.2 ounces for girls. 5. About two-thirds were exclusively breastfed for 10 months or longer.

6. Average age of walking and talking as reported by parents is somewhat lower for this group than for the main gifted group. 7. Health and energy ratings of the subjects by parents and teachers were in the majority of cases above average 8. Teachers report 8% as having had more or less serious organic disease Symptoms of general weakness were reported by the home for 13.6% of the group By the school for 20%

9. The school reports 23% of the boys and 33% of the girls with somewhat defective vision and 2% of the boys and 0.5% of the girls with very poor vision. There was no case of poor or very poor hearing. 10. The nutrition of 95.8% is rated by the teachers as good or excellent, by the parents, 91%.

11. Almost one half of the group have undergone tonsillectomy and about the same number, adenoinectomy. Parents and teachers report 14% as having colds frequently or very frequently. 12. Parents rate 18% as nervous, the teachers 17%. The percentages with a history of stuttering, habit spasms, chorea, excessive fears, or tendency to worry, run about the same as those for the main group. That is, are not excessive. The sleep records are above the Turman and Hocking norms. 13. Among 242, there had been 31 cases of scarlet fever, 9 cases of diphtheria, 7 of typhoid, 6 of smallpox, and 3 of infantile paralysis.

14. Roughly half the boys and a quarter of the girls have suffered accidents. 15. The proportion of girls who menstruate before 11, 12, and 13 is considerably higher than for unselected girls. 16. More than 60% of the group are accelerated in school and none seriously retarded. About 70% have skipped one or more half grades. One-seventh of the group entered school, first, second or third grade before the age of six.

After school entrance, there was little skipping. 17. These children like school and show a good record of attendance. The boys average nearly seven hours a week in home study, the girls nearly eight. 18. Half the group learned to read before starting to school, and 14 before 5 years. As in the case of the main group, there have been an excessive amount of interest in dictionaries, atlases and encyclopedias.

19. The average number of books reported in the home library was 380. 20. The parents of these children have been gifted, in general, by the same educational principles as the parents of the main group. There have been few of any attempts at prodigy making, but effort has been made to satisfy the child's natural intellectual curiosity and to hold up suitable standards of school performance. 21. In the absence of a satisfactory battery of achievement tests, a general information test was given, including items in nature study and science, language and literature, history and civics and the arts. The superiority of the group in this test is about as great as the superiority in the termed group test.

22. By modification of Cattell's order of merit method, a scale was derived for the rating of school subjects according to the demands they made upon general intelligence. A negative correlation of minus 0.38 was found between the intelligence demands of a school subject and the frequency with which it was found easy by the pupils. On the other hand, the correlation between preferred subjects and subjects found easy was plus 0.75. Such subjects as mathematics, physics, chemistry and modern languages were especially liked and rated easy. The manual and art subjects were least liked and least often rated as easy.

23. Nearly half the boys are looking forward either to engineering or to science. More than a third of the girls expect to teach. The large majority of the occupational choices of both sexes fall in the professional group. 24. The results for this group are of value chiefly as confirming in almost every detail the results for the main experimental group. What has been found for both of these groups will doubtless be found to hold for any gifted group similarly selected.

End of section 20.