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Chapters 29-30 of History of Rome from the Earliest Times down to 476 A.D. by Robert F. Pennell. This LibriVox recording is in the public domain. Recording by Tony Richardson. Chapter 29. The First Triumvirate. Pompey was ostensibly at the head of the First Triumvirate and in return supported Caesar in his candidacy for the consulship. Crassus was to contribute his wealth to influence the election.

Caesar was elected without opposition in 59. His colleague, the Senate's tool, was Marcus Bibulus. Caesar had now reached the highest round in the ladder of political offices. He had shown himself and all his course to be grateful in keeping within the bounds of the Constitution, never exerting himself in political quarrels except to defend the law against lawlessness. Now he was in a position to push his ideas of reform and to show the aristocracy of what stuff he was made.

It would have been well for Cicero and better for the state had the oracle been willing to join hands with Caesar and Pompey, but he was too vain of his own glory to join hands with those who were his superiors, and he clung to the senate, feeling that his talents would shine there more and be more likely to redound to his own personal fame. Caesar's consulship increased his popularity among all except the aristocrats. His agrarian law, carefully framed and worded, was bitterly opposed by the Senate, especially by his colleague Bibulus and by Cato. The law provided that large tracts of the agra publicus,

then held on easy terms by the rich patricians, be distributed among the veterans of Pompey. Caesar proposed to pay the holders a reasonable sum for their loss, though legally they had no claim whatever on the land. Although Bibulus interfered, Cato raved, and the tribunes vetoed, still the assembly passed the law, and voted in addition that the Senate be obliged to take an oath to observe it.

The Leges Giulia were a code of laws which Caesar drew up during his year of office. They mark an era in Roman law, for they cover many crimes, the commission of which had been for a long time undermining the state. The most important of these was the lexte reptundis, aimed at the abuses of governors of provinces. It required all governors to make a double return on their accounts, one to be left in the province open for inspection, the other to be kept at Rome.

When Caesar's term of office was nearly ended, he obtained from the reluctant Senate his appointment as proconsul of Gaul for five years. He must leave the city, however, in safe hands, otherwise all his work would be undone. He managed the consular elections for the next year in 58 so adroitly that Piso and Gabinius, on whose friendship he could rely, were elected. There were in Rome, however, two men whom it would

be dangerous for Caesar to leave behind. Cato, the ultra-aristocrat, hated him bitterly. Cicero, whose ambition was to lead the senate, a body only too willing to crush Caesar, might do him great harm. It was Caesar's good fortune, or as some believe, the result of his own scheming, that both these men were put temporarily out of the way. Claudius Pulcher was a young aristocrat, notorious for his wildness. At one time, by assuming the dress of a woman, he had gained

admittance to the festival of Bonadilla, which was celebrated only by women. He was discovered and brought to trial before the Senate, but acquitted by means of open bribery. Cicero had been instrumental in bringing him to trial, and Claudius never forgot it. He got adopted into a plebeian family in order to be a candidate for the tribuneship and was successful. He then proposed to the assembly that any person who had put to death a Roman citizen without allowing him to

appeal to the people be considered a violator of the constitution. The proposal was carried. All knew that Cicero was meant, and he fled at once to Macedonia. His property was confiscated, his houses were destroyed, and his palace in the city was dedicated to the goddess of liberty. The kingdom of Cyprus, which had long been attached to that of Egypt, had been bequeathed to Rome at the death of Ptolemy Alexander in Aedie. The senate had delayed to accept the bequest, and meanwhile the island was ruled by Ptolemy of Cyprus, one of the heirs of the dead king.

Clodius, on the plea that this king harbored pirates, persuaded the assembly to annex the island and to send Cato to take charge of it. He accepted the mission and was absent two years. His duties were satisfactorily performed, and he returned with about seven million dollars to increase the Roman treasury. Thus, Cicero and Cato being out of the city, the Senate was without a leader who could work injury in Caesar's absence.

Chapter 30. Caesar's Campaigns in Gaul. Caesar was now in the prime of manhood, in the full vigor of mind and body. His previous experience in camp life had been comparatively small. His early service in Asia and his more recent campaigns in Spain, however, had shown his aptitude for military life. The Romans had already obtained a foothold in Gaul. Since 118, the southern part of the country along the seaboard had been a Roman province called

Gallia Narbonensis, from the colony of Narbo, which the Romans had founded. The rest of Gaul included all modern France and a part of Switzerland, Holland, and Belgium. The inhabitants were all of the Celtic race, except the few Germans who had crossed the Rhine and settled in the north, and the Aquitani, who lived in the southwest, and who are represented by the Basques of today. The Gauls were more or less civilized since they had come into contact

with the Romans, but they still had the tribal form of government. Like the early Romans, there were more than 50 of these tribes, which were mostly hostile to one another, as well as divided into factions among themselves. This condition favored a conquest, for the factions were frequently Roman and non-Roman. Two of the chief tribes were the Ediu and the Sequani. The former had been taken under the protection of Rome. The latter,

impatient of control and Roman influence, had invited a tribe of Germans under Aria Vistus to come into Gaul and settle and be their allies. These Germans had attacked and conquered the Eduins, taken from them hostages, and with the Sequinians were in the ascendancy. In Switzerland lived the Helivedi. They had so increased in numbers that their country was too small for them. They therefore proposed to emigrate farther into Gaul, and the Sequinians,

whose lands bordered on those of the Helvicians, gave them permission to march through their country. Such was the state of affairs when Caesar arrived in Gaul, feeling that the passage of such a large body of immigrants, 368,000, through Gaul would be dangerous to the province. Gallia Narbonensis, he determined to interfere. The Helvetians were met at Bibrakte, near autumn, and after a terrible battle, which raged from noon until night, were defeated with great slaughter

in 58. The survivors, about one-third, were treated kindly, and most of them sent back to Switzerland. Caesar now turned his attention to the Germans who had settled west of the Rhine. After several fruitless attempts at negotiation, during which the bad fate of Ariovistus became conspicuous, the forces came together. Though the Germans were brave, they were no match for the drilled legionnaires who fought with the regularity of a machine. Few of the barbarians escaped,

but among these was Ariovistus. The campaigns of this year being ended, the legions were sent into winter quarters among the Sequanians under Labienus, the lieutenant of Caesar. He himself went into Cisopanigal to attend to his duties as administrator and to have communication with his friends at Rome. The War with the Belgae. While Caesar was in Hithrigal, he learned from Labienus that the Belgae were forming a league to resist the Romans. This people occupied the northeastern

part of Gaul and embraced several tribes, of which the principal were the Remy, Belovaki, Swisshanes, and Nervi. The last were the fiercest and least civilized. Caesar raised two new legions, making aid in all, and marched against the Belgae as soon as the spring opened. His sudden approach alarmed the Remy, who lived nearest to central Gaul, and they immediately put themselves under his protection. From them, he learned that the Belgae could muster about 300,000

men. By skillful tactics and a successful attack, he put to flight and nearly annihilated the Sueziones. The Belovacian now put themselves under his protection, but the Nervie remained in arms. One day, while the six legions were forming camp on the bank of the river Cebes, the nervii and their allies suddenly rushed upon them from an embuscade in the woods on the opposite bank. The troops were entirely unprepared, and so quick was the enemy's charge that the Romans had not time to put on their helmets,

to remove the covering from their shields, or to find their proper places in the ranks. Great confusion followed, and they became almost panic-stricken. Caesar rushed into their midst, snatched a shield from a soldier, and by his presence and coolness revived their courage. The nerviers were checked, and victory was assured.

But the enemy fought on with the bravery that excited the admiration of Caesar. Of 60,000 men, scarcely 500 survived. The women and children were cared for kindly by Caesar and settled in their own territory. The Adwathiki, who had assisted the Nerviers in their struggle, were conquered by Caesar and sold into slavery. Thus ended the Belgian campaign in 1957. The Legions were put into winter quarters near where the war had been waged, and Caesar went to Italy.

In his honor was decreed a Thanksgiving lasting 15 days. The Veneti, invasion of Germany. All the tribes in the northwestern part of Gaul, Brittany, except the Veneti, had given hostage to Crassus, son of Triumvir, and lieutenant of Caesar. This tribe refused to give hostages and, inducing others to join them, seized some of Roman officers sent among them by Crassus. The campaign of the third year in 56 was directed against these people.

They were mostly sailors and fishermen, with villages built on the end of promontories and easily defended by land. In a naval engagement which lasted nearly all day, their whole fleet was destroyed. The leaders of the Finiti were put to death for their treachery in seizing Roman officers, and the rest were sold into slavery. The legions spent the winter of 56 to 55 in the northern part of Gaul among the Alerki and neighboring tribes. During this winter, another wave of Germans passed

over the Rhine into Gaul. They had been driven from their homes by a powerful tribe called the Suevi. In the spring of 55, Caesar collected his troops and advanced to within 12 miles of the German camp and gave the invaders 24 hours to leave the country. Before the expiration of the time, they attacked Caesar's outposts, killing several knights and two men of aristocratic families. In the general engagement that followed, the Germans were totally routed and most of them

were slain. Caesar next determined to cross the Rhine into Germany, thinking thus to inspire the Germans with greater fear of the Romans. He built his famous bridge, crossed it, remained 18 days in Germany and, thinking his object accomplished, returned to Gaul, destroying the bridge behind him. Invasion of Britain. It was now August and Caesar occupied the rest of the season by crossing the channel to Britain, England. Landing near Dill, but with little resistance

on the part of the natives, he explored the country for a short time and returned in September, as the equinox was near and the weather unsettled. The legions were sent into winter quarters among the Belgae, and Caesar set out for Cisophanie Gaul. During this winter, 55 to 54, orders were given to build a large fleet as Caesar intended to return to Britain the next year. After all preparations were completed he set sail July 20th 54 and the next day landed on the island

he defeated the Britons under their leader Cassius of Leonis and compelled them to pay tribute and give hostages. Many thousand prisoners were taken and sold in Italy as slaves. Final Struggles of the Gauls. In the winter of 54 to 53, the legions were distributed among several tribes. That station in the territory of the Iberones was commanded by the lieutenants, Gabinus and Cotta. News reached the encampment that there was an uprisal of the Iberonese.

It was decided to break up camp and go, if possible, to the winter quarters of their nearest companions. On the march, they were surprised and nearly all killed. Only a few stragglers carried the news to Labanus, who was wintering with a legion among the Remy. This success moved the Nerviae to attack Quintus Cicero, the lieutenant who was wintering with his legion among them. Word was sent to Caesar, who had fortunately not yet left Gaul. He hastened

to Cicero's relief, raised the siege, and all but annihilated the revolting Nervii. In 53, Caesar punished the Iberonese for their action in the previous winter. The tribe was completely destroyed, but their leader, Embiurix, escaped and was never captured. During the summer, Caesar again crossed the Rhine. At the close of the summer, he returned to Cisopanegal, supposing that the Gauls were totally subdued. He was mistaken. The patriotism of the people was not

yet extinguished. The chiefs of all the tribes secretly established communication with each other. A day was settled upon for a general uprising. The Roman inhabitants of Gnabum, on the Liger were massacred. The leading spirit in this last struggle of the Gauls was Vercingetorix, chief of the Everini. Caesar hastened across the Alps, surmounted the difficulties of crossing the Cervantes, when the snow was very deep, collected his legions, marched upon Ganabim,

and plundered and burnt the town. Vercingetorix saw that he was no match for the legions in open battle. He proposed, therefore, to cut off Caesar's supplies by burning all the towns of the Beteriges and laying the country waste. Avaricum alone was spared. With its walls were placed the best of their goods and a strong garrison. Thither Caesar marched and, after a well-defended siege, captured the town and killed every person in it, excepting 800 who escaped to the camp of

Vercingetorix. Large quantities of corn were taken, with which Caesar supplied his soldiers. He then marched against Gergovia, the capital of the Averni. As the town was on a high plateau and too strong to be stormed, he laid siege to it. A part of the army, contrary to instructions, one day attempted to assault the place. The battle which followed was disastrous to the Romans, and the only defeat Caesar received in Gaul.

Forty-six officers and seven hundred men fell. The siege was raised. It was a serious position for Caesar. All Gaul was in flames. Retreating at once, he formed a junction with Levinus at Agendicum, and with all his troops started for Gallia, Nabonensis, to protect it from invasion. On his route was Elysia, here Vercingetorix, was entrenched with 80,000 troops. It was like Gergovia, situated on a hill and considered impregnable. Caesar laid siege to this place

in 52. Vercingetorix appealed to all Gaul for aid. Hardly had the fortress been invested when Caesar's army was surrounded by an immense force of Gauls that had come to the rescue. Caesar needed now all his skill and genius, but they did not fail him. The relieving army, though five times as large as his, was driven back and sent flying home. Seeing that all was over, Vercingetorix called a council of his chiefs and advised surrender.

A message was sent to Caesar. He demanded unconditional surrender and was obeyed. The people were sold into slavery, and the money obtained distributed among the soldiers. Vercingetorix was kept to be exhibited in the triumph at Rome and afterwards died in a dungeon. With the fall of Alesia, the subjugation of Gaul was practically completed. The next year, 51, Caesar honored several chiefs with privileges.

Some of the nobles were granted the franchise and some admitted to the senate. The work of romanizing Gaul was fairly begun. Two provinces were formed, Gallia and Belgica. and later in seventeen a d the former of these was subdivided into lugdinensis and aquitania roman money was introduced and latin became the official language chapter thirty