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CHAPTER 39. THE FLAVIAN EMPERORS. VESPASIAN. 69-79. The East now made a claim for the Emperor, and on July 1, 69, The soldiers, who were engaged in war against the revolted Jews in Judea, proclaimed as emperor, their commander, Titus Flavius Vespasianus.

He left the conduct of the war in charge of his son Titus, and arrived at Rome in Seventy. Here he overthrew and put to death Vitellius. In the course of this struggle, the capital was burned. This he restored, rebuilding also a large part of the city. In his own life, Vespasian was simple, putting to shame the luxury and extravagance of the nobles,

and causing a marked improvement in the general tone of society. He removed from the Senate many improper members, replacing them by able men, among whom was Agricola. In 70, he put down a formidable rebellion in Gaul, and when his son Titus returned from the capture of Jerusalem. Footnote, Jerusalem was taken in 70 after a siege of several months,

the horrors of which have been graphically detailed by the Jewish historian Josephus, who was present in the army of Titus. The city was destroyed, and the inhabitants sold into slavery. They enjoyed a joint triumph. The Temple of Janus was closed, and peace prevailed during the remainder of his reign.

Much money was spent on public works, and in beautifying the city. A new forum was built, a temple of peace, public baths, and the famous Colosseum was begun. receiving its name from the Colossus, a statue of Nero which had stood nearby. On the whole, Vespasian was active and prudent in public affairs,

frugal and virtuous in private life. The decade of his reign was marked by peace and general prosperity. One of the ablest men of this age was Agricola, 37-93, Born at Forum Julii in Gaul, he was made governor of Aquitania, Vibaspation, in 73. Four years later he was consul, and the next year was sent to Britain, which he conquered,

and governed with marked ability and moderation, increasing the prosperity of the people and advancing their civilization. He remained in Britain until 85. when he was recalled. His life was written by his son-in-law, the historian Tacitus. Titus, 79-81. Vespasian was succeeded by his son, Titus, who emulated the virtues of his father.

He finished the Colosseum, begun by Vespasian, and built a triumphal arch to commemorate his victories over the Jews. This arch, called the Arch of Titus, was built on the highest part of the Via Sacra, and on its walls was carved a representation of the sacred candlestick of the Jewish temple, which can still be seen. It was during this reign that Herculaneum and Pompeii were destroyed by an eruption of Vesuvius.

In this eruption perished Pliny the Elder, the most noted writer of his day. His work on natural history, the only one of his writings that is preserved, shows that he was a true student.

His passion for investigation led him to approach too near the volcano and caused his death. Domitian, 81. through 96. Domitian was the opposite of his brother Titus. Cruel, passionate, and extravagant,

he was murdered after a reign of 15 years, during which he earned the hatred and contempt of his subjects by his crimes and inconsistencies. In his foreign policy, Domitian showed considerable ability. He added to the empire that part of Germany, which corresponds to modern Baden and Württemberg, and built a line of fortifications from Metz on the Rhine to Radesbon on the Danube. With him ended the line of the Flavian emperors, and he was also the last of the

so-called Twelve Caesars, a name given them by the historian Suetonius. End of Chapter 39 Chapter 40 The Five Good Emperors Nerva, 96-98

Nerva was appointed by the Senate to succeed Domitian, and was the first emperor who did not owe his advancement to military force or influence. He associated with himself Marcus Ulpius Trajanus, then in command of the army on the Rhine. Nerva ruled only sixteen months, but during that time he restored tranquility among the people, conferring happiness and prosperity upon every class. Trajan, 98-117. Nerva was succeeded by Trajan, whose character

has its surest guarantee in the love and veneration of his subjects, and it is said that long afterwards the highest praise that could be bestowed on a ruler was that he was more fortunate than Augustus, and better than Trajan. Trajan was a soldier, and if he lacked the refinements of a peaceful life, he was nevertheless a wise and firm master. He added to the empire Dacia, the country included between the Danube and the These, the Carpathians and the Prut.

This territory became so thoroughly Romanized that the language of its inhabitants today is founded on that of their conquerors nearly eighteen centuries ago. It was in honor of this campaign into Dacia that the famous Column of Trajan, which still remains, was erected. Trajan also annexed to the empire Arabia Patria,

which afforded an important route between Egypt and Syria. His invasion of Parthia, however, resulted in no permanent advantage. During the reign of Trajan, the Roman Empire reached the summit of its power, but the first signs of decay were beginning to be seen in the financial distress of all Italy and the decline of the free peasantry,

until, in the next century, they were reduced to a condition of practical serfdom. The literature of Trajan's reign was second only to that of the Augustan Age. His time has often been called the Silver Age. Its prose writers were, however, unlike those of the Augustan Age, far superior to its poets. The most famous prose writers were Tacitus, Pliny the Younger, and Quintilian.

The poets of this period were Juvenal, Perseus, Martial, Lucan, and Stadius, of whom the last two were of an inferior order. Hadrian, 117-138 Trajan was succeeded by his cousin's son, Hadrian, a native of Spain. One of the first acts of Hadrian was to relinquish the recent conquests of Trajan. and to restore the old boundaries of the empire.

The reasons for this were that they had reached the utmost limits which could lend strength to the power of Rome, or be held in subjection without constant and expensive military operations. The people occupying the new conquests were hardy and warlike, scattered over a country easy of defense and certain to strive constantly against a foreign yoke.

Hadrian displayed constant activity in traveling over the empire to overlook personally its administration and protection. He visited Britain, where he crushed the inroads of the Caledonians and built a fortified line of works known as the Picts Wall, extending from sea to sea.

The remains of this great work are still to be seen, corresponding nearly to the modern boundary between England and Scotland. He also visited the East, where the Jews were making serious trouble, and completed their overthrow. On his return to the city, the Emperor devoted himself to its adornment.

Several of his works, more or less complete, still remain. The most famous of these is the Mausoleum, Tomb of Hadrian, now known as the Castle of San Angelo. Hadrian was afflicted with bad health, suffering much from diseases from which he could find no relief.

On account of this, and to secure a proper succession, He associated with himself in the government Titus Aurelius Antoninus, and required him to adopt Marcus Annius Verus and Lucius Verus. In 138, soon after this arrangement was made, Hadrian died, leaving the empire to Titus. Titus Aurelius Antoninus Pius 138-161

Antoninus, a native of Gaul, was fifty-two years old when he succeeded to the throne. The cognomen Pius was conferred upon him by the Senate on account of the affectionate respect which he had shown for Hadrian. He was a man of noble appearance, firm and prudent, and under him the affairs of state moved smoothly.

Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, 161-180 On the death of Antoninus, Marcus Aeneas Verus succeeded him under the title of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. The Moors made an invasion into Spain, the barbarians broke into Gaul, the army in Britain attempted to set up another emperor, and the Parthians in the east were in an uneasy state.

The Eastern War, however, ended favorably, and the Parthian king purchased peace by ceding Mesopotamia to Rome. But the returning army brought with it a pestilence, which spread devastation throughout the west. The Christians were charged with being the cause of the plague,

and were cruelly persecuted. Among the victims were Justin Martyr at Rome and Polycarp at Smyrna. The death of Lucius Verus in 168 released Aurelius from a colleague who attracted attention, only by his unfitness for his position. The emperor was thus relieved of embarrassments which might well have become his greatest danger.

The remainder of his reign, however, was scarcely less unhappy. The dangers from the troublesome barbarians grew greater and greater. Rome had now passed the age of conquest and began to show inability even to defend what she had acquired. For fourteen years, Aurelius was engaged on the frontiers,

fighting these barbarians and endeavoring to check their advance. He died at Vienna while thus occupied in the 59th year of his life, 180. Peace was shortly afterwards made with the barbarians, a peace bought with money, an example often followed in later times, when Rome lacked the strength and courage to enforce her wishes by force of arms.

Marcus Aurelius was the philosopher of the empire. His tastes were quiet. He was unassuming and intent on the good of the people. His faults were amiable weaknesses, his virtues those of a hero. His meditations have made him known as an author of fine tastes and thoughts.

With him ended the line of the good emperors. After his death, Rome's prosperity and power began rapidly to wane. The Christians The Christians, who were gradually increasing in numbers, were persecuted at different times throughout the empire.

One ground for these persecutions was that it was a crime against the state to refuse to worship the gods of the Romans under whom the empire had flourished. It was also the custom to burn incense in front of the emperor's statue as an act of adoration. The Christians not only refused homage to the Roman gods, but denounced the burning of incense as sacrilegious. Aurelius gave his sanction to the most general persecution this sect had yet suffered.

The last combined effort to suppress them was under Diocletian in 284, but it ended with the Edict of Milan in 312, which famous decree gave the imperial license to the religion of Christ. End of chapter 40 Chapter 41 Period of Military Despotism Decline of the Empire

Commodus 180-192. On the death of Aurelius, his son Commodus hastened to Rome, and was received by both the Senate and army without opposition. His character was the opposite of that of his good father. In ferocity and vindictiveness he was almost unequaled, even among the emperors of unhappy Rome. By means of informers, who were well paid, he rid himself of the best

members of the Senate. His government became so corrupt, he himself so notorious in crime, that he was unendurable. His proudest boasts were of his triumphs in the amphitheater, and of his ability to kill a hundred lions with as many arrows. After a reign of twelve years, his servants rid the empire of his presence. Pertinax, 192-193

Pertinax, the prefect of the city, an old and experienced senator, followed Commodus. His reign of three months was well meant, but, as it was not supported by the military, it was of no effect. His attempted reforms were stopped by his murder. Julianus, 193

Septimius Severus, 193-211 The Praetorians now offered the crown to the highest bidder, who proved to be Didius Julianus, a wealthy senator. He paid about a thousand dollars to each soldier of the guard, twelve thousand in number.

After enjoying the costly honor, two months he was deposed and executed. In the meantime, several soldiers had been declared emperor by their respective armies. Among them was Septimius Severus, an African belonging to the army of the Danube. Severus was an able soldier.

He disarmed the Praetorians, banished them from Rome, and filled their place with 50,000 legionaries who acted as his bodyguard. The person whom he placed in command of this guard was made to rank next to himself with legislative, judicial, and financial powers. The Senate he reduced to a non-entity.

After securing the capital, Severus carried on a campaign against the Parthians and was victorious over the rulers of Mesopotamia and Arabia. In 203 he erected, in commemoration of these victories, a magnificent arch which still stands at the head of the Forum. He died at Eberachim, York, in Britain,

while making preparations for a campaign against the Caledonians. Caracalla, Macrinus, and Heliogabalus. Severus left two sons, both of whom he had associated with himself in the government. No sooner was he dead than they quarreled, and the elder, Caracalla, murdered the other with his own hand in the presence of their mother.

Caracalla was bloodthirsty and cruel. After a short reign, 211 through 216, he was murdered by one of his soldiers. By him were begun the famous baths which bore his name, and of which extensive remains still exist. Caracalla was succeeded by Macrinus, who reigned but one year, and was followed by Heliogabalus, 218-222, a priest of the sun, a true Oriental, with but few virtues.

His end was like that of his predecessors. The Praetorians revolted and murdered him. From Alexander Severus to the age of the Thirty Tyrants, 222 through 268. Alexander Severus was a good man and well-educated, but he endeavored in vain to check the decline of the state.

The military had become all-powerful, and he could effect nothing against it. During his reign, 222-235, the famous baths begun by Caracalla were finished. Severus was killed in a mutiny led by Maximin, who was emperor for three years, 235-238, and was then murdered by his mutinous soldiers. Gordian, his successor, 238-244, was also slain by his own soldiers in his camp on the Euphrates,

and Philip, 244-249, and Decius, 249-251, both fell in battle. Under Decius was begun a persecution of the Christians severer than any that preceded it. The next seventeen years, 251 through 268, is a period of great confusion. Several generals in different provinces were declared emperor. The empire nearly fell to pieces, but finally rallied without loss of territory.

Its weakness, however, was apparent to all. This period is often called the Age of the Thirty Tyrants. Five Good Emperors, 268-283. Five Good Emperors now ruled and revived, somewhat, the shattered strength of the government. Claudius, 268-270, Aurelian, 270-275, Tacitus, 275-276, Probus, 276-282, and Charis, 282-283.

Aurelian undertook a campaign against the famous Zenobia, queen of Palmyra. In her he found a worthy foe, one whose political ability was rendered more brilliant by her justice and courage. Defeated in the field, she fortified herself in Palmyra,

which was taken after a siege and destroyed. Zenobia was carried to Rome, where she graced the triumph of her conqueror, but was afterwards permitted to live in retirement. Aurelian was the first who built the walls of Rome in their present position.

Diocletian, 284-305 With this ruler, the last vestige of the old republican form of government at Rome disappears. Old Rome was dead. Her senate had lost the last remnant of its respectability. Seeing the necessity of a more united country and a firmer rule,

Diocletian associated with himself Maximian, a gigantic soldier, who signalized his accession by subduing a dangerous revolt in Gaul. He also appointed two officers, Galerius and Constantius, whom he called Caesars, one to have charge of the east and the other of the west. By means of these assistants he crushed all revolts, strengthened the waning power of the empire, and imposed peace and good order upon the world. Diocletian and Maximian afterwards resigned, and allowed their two Caesars to assume the

rank of Augustae, and they, in their turn, appointed Caesars as assistants. Soon after his accession, Constantius died, and his son, Constantine, was proclaimed Caesar, against the wishes of Galerius. A bitter struggle followed, in which Constantine finally overcame all his opponents, and was declared sole emperor. For his successes, he was named the Great. Constantine the Great, 306-337

Constantine determined to build for his empire a new capital, which should be worthy of him. He selected the site of Byzantium as offering the greatest advantages, for, being defended on three sides by the sea and the golden horn, it could easily be made almost impregnable,

while as a seaport its advantages were unrivaled, a feature not in the least shared by Rome. The project was entered upon with energy. The city was built and named Constantinople. To people, it, the seat of government, was permanently removed thither,

and every inducement was offered to immigration. Thus was born the Greek Empire, destined to drag out a miserable existence for nearly a thousand years after Rome had fallen a prey to the barbarians. Its founder died after a reign of thirty years in his sixty-fourth year, 337. Constantine is entitled to great credit for the uniform kindness with which he treated his Christian subjects.

It is said that his mother, Helena, was a Christian, and that it was to her influence that this mildness was due. The sect, notwithstanding many persecutions, had kept on increasing. Until now, we find them a numerous and quite influential body. It was during his reign that the decree of Milan was issued, in 313, giving the imperial license to the religion of Christ, and also in this reign the famous Council of Nice in Bithynia, 325, met to settle questions of creed. In person, Constantine was tall and majestic. He was dexterous in all warlike accomplishments,

intrepid in war, affable in peace, patient and prudent in counsel, bold and unhesitating in action. Ambition alone led him to attack the East, and the very madness of jealousy marked his course after his success. He was filial in his affection towards his mother, but he can scarcely be called affectionate who put to death his father-in-law, his brother-in-law, his wife, and his son. If he was great in his virtues, in his faults, he was contemptible.

Decline of the Empire. Constantine was succeeded by his three sons, Constantine II, Constantius and Constance, who divided the empire among themselves, 337 through 353. Constantine and Constance almost at once quarreled over the possession of Italy,

and the difficulty was ended only by the death of the former. The other two brothers lived in harmony for some time, because the Persian War in the east occupied Constantius, while Constance was satisfied with a life of indolence and dissipation. Constance was murdered in 350, and his brother was sole emperor.

He died ten years later and was succeeded by his cousin Julian, 360 through 363. Julian was a good soldier and a man calculated to win the love and respect of all, but he attempted to restore the old religion, and thus gained for himself the epithet of apostate. The Christians, however, had too firm a hold on the state

to admit of their powers being shaken. The failure of Julian precluded any similar attempt afterward. After a reign of three years, he was killed in an expedition against the Persians. His successor, Jovian, 363-364, who was chosen by the army, died after a reign of only seven months.

Valentinian and Valens, 364-375 After a brief interregnum, the throne was bestowed on Valentinian, who associated with himself his brother Valens. The empire was divided. Valens took the east, with Constantinople as his capital. Valentinian took the west, making Milan the seat of his government. So completely had Rome fallen from her ancient position, that it is very doubtful if this monarch ever visited the city during his

reign. Footnote. Since the building of Constantinople, no emperor had lived in Rome. She had ceased to be mistress even of the West, and rapidly fell to the rank of a provincial city. He died during a campaign on the Danube. His son, Grashen, 375 through 383, succeeded him. He discouraged paganism, and under him Christianity made rapid strides.

His uncle, Valens, was slain in a battle against the Goths. But so completely were the Eastern and Western empires now separated, that Gratian did not attempt to make himself sole ruler, but appointed Theodosius to the empty throne. Gratian, like so many of his predecessors, was murdered. His successors, Maximus 383-388, Valentinian II 388-392, and Eugenius 392-394, were either

deposed or assassinated, and again there was, for a short time, one ruler of the whole empire, Theodosius, whom Gratian had made emperor of the East. He was sole emperor for one year, 394-395. On his death, his two sons divided the empire, Honorius, 395-423, taking the west, and Arcadius, the east.

Honorius was only six years old when he began to reign. He was placed under the care of a vandal named Stilicho, to whom he was allied by marriage. Stilicho was a man of ability. The barbarians were driven from the frontiers, on the Rhine and in Britain. A revolt in Africa was suppressed. Honorius himself was weak and jealous. He did not hesitate to murder Stilicho as soon as he was old enough

to see the power he was wielding. With Stilicho's death, his fortune departed. Rome was besieged, captured, and sacked by the barbarian Alaric in 410. When this evil was passed, numerous contestants arose in different parts of the empire, each eager for a portion of the fabric which was now so obviously crumbling to pieces. Honorius was succeeded, after one of the longest reigns of the imperial line by Valentinian III,

423-455. The empire was but a relic of its former self. Gaul, Spain, and Britain were practically lost. Illyria and Pannonia were in the hands of the Goths, and Africa was soon after seized by the barbarians. Valentinian was fortunate in the possession of Itaius, a Scythian by birth, who for a time upheld the Roman name, winning for himself the title of Last of the Romans. He was assassinated by his ungrateful master. A few months later, in 455,

the emperor himself was killed by a senator, Maximus, who succeeded him but for only three months, when Avedis, 455-456, a noble of Gaul, became emperor. He was deposed by Rysimer, 457-467, a swath of considerable ability, who for some time managed the affairs of the empire, making and unmaking its monarchs at pleasure. After the removal of Avedis, ten months were allowed to elapse before a successor was appointed, and then the crown was bestowed upon Majorian,

457-461. Severus followed him, a man too weak to interfere with the plans of Rizimer. After his death, Rizimer ruled under the title of patrician, until the people demanded an emperor, and he appointed Anthemius, 467-472, who attempted to strengthen his position by marrying a daughter of Rysimer. But jealousy soon sprang up between them.

Rysimer invited a horde of barbarians from across the Alps, with whom he captured and sacked Rome, and killed Anthemius. Shortly after, Rysimer himself died. Names which appear only as names now follow each other in rapid succession. Finally, in 476, Zeno, Emperor of the East, declared the office of Emperor of the West

abolished, and gave the government of the Diocese of Italy to Odoacer with the title of Patrician. End of Chapter 41 End of Section 16