Chapter 70
Chapter 70 of History of the Norwegian People, Volume 1 by Knut Gershet. This LibriVox recording is in the public domain. Literature and Culture in the Age of Håkon Håkonsson The Old Norse poetic literature, i.e. the Elder Edda and the Songs of the Skalds, flourished principally in the period from Harald Håfagre until the middle of the 11th century.
After Harald Håfagre's time, the Skaldic poesy began to decay. Many familiar names are indeed met with later, but they indicate no revival of the old art of poetry. The three great scalds of Hawken Hawkinson's own time, the historian Snorra Sturleson and his two nephews Sturla Thorson and Olaf Fitheskald, possessed great ability as poets, but the vigor and spontaneity had gone out of their verse, and Snorra and Sturla are famous principally as
historians and prose writers. Snorra wrote his younger Edda as a textbook for scalds with the intention, as it seems, of creating new interest in the noble old art. It is one of the most valuable works in Old Norse literature, but it failed to produce the result intended. The age of Norse poetry and song was fast drawing to a close. The chief interest now centered upon history and romance, and in the course of the 13th century the Old Norse prose literature reached
its fullest development. It embraces works on the most varied subjects, history, biography, geography, legend, and romance, all known by the common name of saga, i.e. narrative, to which must also be added treatises on grammar, mythology, and poetry, codes of laws, and other miscellaneous works. The sagas are written in a style of noble simplicity and classic beauty. Rich in contents, fascinating in form and diction, they rank with the Edic songs
among the greatest achievements in the domain of literature. Few persons in our day adequately realize the extent of the early Icelandic literature or its richness, says Professor John Fiske. The poems, legends, and histories earlier than the date when Dante walked and mused in the streets of Florence survive for us now in some hundreds of works, for the most part of rare and absorbing interest. The Heimskringla, or Chronicle of Snorla Sturluson, written about
1215, should be about 1230, is one of the greatest history books in the world. The historical sagas may be divided into three great groups, the Icelandic family sagas, dealing with the history and biography of the great families in Iceland, the sagas about the kings of Norway, the sagas about the Norwegian colonies. This literature began to flourish both in Norway and Iceland towards the middle of the 12th century, and reached its zenith in Hågan Håkansson's reign.
The old Icelandic writer, Ara Froda, 1148, has been called the father of Old Norse history writing. He wrote the Íslandingabok, about 1134, and some scholars have held that he also began the Lannalmabok, which was finished by later writers. About 1150, Erik Odsson wrote the Hrityarstiki, a history of Harald Gila and his successors, which has been lost. In the latter part of the same century,
Ad Snorresen wrote the elder Olafsaga Tryggvasonr, Gunnlaug Leifsson wrote another saga by the same name, Karl Jonsson wrote the Sverres saga, and some unknown Icelander wrote the Borglungusager, or Saga of the Three Kings,
Håkan Sverresen, Guttorm Sigurdsson, and Inge Borgsson. In Norway, the monk Theodrek, Theodricus Monarchus, wrote a history of the kings of Norway, De Antiquitate Regum Norwegiensium, in the latter part of the 12th or the beginning of the 13th century. At about the same time, an unknown Norwegian ecclesiastic, probably in the Orkneys,
wrote the Historia Norwegie. The Augrip af Noregs Kunungusogum, the first attempt at a connected account of the kings of Norway in the Norse language, was also written about this time, but only a fragment of this work has been preserved. From the close of the 12th century, the Latin language, which hitherto has been used occasionally,
ceased to be employed in saga literature. The Old Norse classic prose had been developed, and the taste for history writing had been fully awakened. The Morkinskina, a compilation of sagas about the Norwegian kings, was written by some unknown Icelandic author about 1220. A more critical work is the Fagaskina, also by an unknown Icelandic author from the period 1220 to 1230. It gives the connected history of the kings of Norway from Håfðundsfárta till 1177.
On these earlier works Snorra Sturluson based his Heimskringla, the greatest work of the Icelandic historiographers, written about 1230. Snorra's history is supplemented by the works of his nephew Sturla Thordsson, the last original Icelandic historian. He wrote the Íslandingasaga, which constitutes the nucleus of the great Stirlungasaga,
or the history of Iceland during the Stirlung period. 1160-1262. Also the Landnaumabulk, one of the most important sources for our knowledge of Germanic life, religion, and jurisprudence. King Magnus Halkenson became acquainted with Stirlathorsen and urged him, while on a visit to Norway, to write the history of his father's reign, the Halken-Halkenson Saga, Halken-Er-Saga, Halken-Er-Sanen. This saga, which is based on
letters and documents of the Royal Archives, is the most important source of the history of the Scandinavian north in the 13th century and gives a vivid picture of Håkon Håkenson's reign. Because of King Håkon's friendship with Emperor Frederick II and his relations to the Lübeckers and others, it is also of importance to the history of Germany. This saga seems to have been written shortly after 1263. On a second visit to Norway, Sturla was persuaded to write
the history of Magnus Håkenson's reign, the Magnus Saga Håkonersundler, but only a fragment of this saga remains. To the historical works written about the kings of Norway belongs also the historical Olof saga in Zelga, from about 1250, while the legendary Olof saga must be classified with the legendary in religious literature. Several later works like the Hulda, the Hrokenskina, the Golenkina, and the Erspenil bear no longer the marks of critical and original
scholarship. The sagas which deal exclusively with the Norwegian colonies are the Færinga Saga, found in the sagas of Olaf Tryggvason and Olaf the Saint in the Flátyjárbok. The original, which no longer exists, may have been written in Iceland about 1200 or a little later. The Órkninga Saga, also found in the Flátyjárbok, is thought to have been written before 1250. The Saga of Erik the Red, which deals with the history of the Norse colonies in Greenland
and the discovery of the mainland of North America is found in two manuscripts, the older from the 13th century in the Hauksbok, the later dates from the 15th century. The Flátyarbok is a great collection of sagas and short stories, Thátr, written in 1387-1395 by two Icelandic priests, Jón Thorsson and Magnus Thorhalsson.
The compilers show little originality or critical ability, still the Fláthjárbok remains one of the most fruitful sources of our knowledge of Norwegian history and culture. Of special importance for the history of Iceland are the sagas dealing with the church history of the island, the Krišni saga, which treats of the introduction of Christianity and the early history of the church in Iceland, the Biskupa saga, and the Hjnrvaka, which give the
history of the bishops of Iceland. The Icelandic saga writers have also devoted some attention to the history of Denmark. The Jomsvíkinga saga narrates the history of the Jomsvikings and the Jomsborg, and the Knitlinga saga contains the history of the Danish kingdom from 950 till 1202. Most of the Icelandic family sagas were written in the period 1200 to 1300. The more important are Egil's saga, Laksdörl saga, Gunlaug's saga,
Oerbygja saga Fostbrudra saga Ljósvetninga saga Røykdyllr saga Lopenfördringa saga
Harðr saga Vigaglum saga Hünse Thore saga Gisla saga Sursonon Njál saga
Vatsdöla saga Kormak saga Gretis saga Gylthorys saga Svarftöla saga
Järnarsaga Hjitdölkapa, and Flóamanna saga. A second main division of the Icelandic saga literature is formed by the large number of the mythological sagas dealing with the heroic traditions of the Scandinavian North, the Furnaldrsagar Northerlanda. Among the best known of these are Völzinga saga, Frithjof saga, Irvarad saga, Hervarr saga, Ragnasaga Lothbroker, and Hrolf saga.
Another important part of the Icelandic prose literature are the numerous works of a religious character, such as collections of amylies and sagas or stories about the apostles and saints. In this extensive literature we find the sagas or stories of Virgin Mary, John the Baptist, the Heiligrahmannasöger, sagas of the saints, Postullasöger, or lives of the apostles,
besides a long list of sagas about persons prominent in the New Testament, such as Peter and Paul, John and James, Simon and Jude, Martha and Mary Magdalene, Stephen, Pilate and others. To this literature belongs also the Stjorn, a large work consisting of translations of the historical books and other portions of the Old Testament, together with commentaries. The greater portion of this Bible translation dates from about 1250.
Aside from the Latin historical works already mentioned, the Norwegian Sagamen devoted themselves almost exclusively to the writing of fiction, consisting largely of translations or elaborations into prose narratives of chivalric metrical romances introduced from England and the continent, especially from France. These have been called Fornsöger Söderlande. E. Sars says, The Norwegian court seems to have given the first impulse to the activity which in
the course of the 13th century transplanted many French chivalric romances and other foreign literary productions, into the Norwegian tongue. About Tristan and Isolde's saga, one of the earliest chivalric romances in the Norse language, it is specifically stated in one of the manuscripts that it was written at the request of Håkon Håkonsson. The event seems to be true of the Elis saga, Ivens saga, and many other works translated from the French. King Håkon's relatives and successors,
who like himself had been well-educated, also seem to have been interested in this kind of literary activity, and to have acted as its patrons and promoters. According to an old source, the Barlumsaga of Josefats is supposed to have been written by King Håkon Sverresen, who seems, however, to have been confounded with Håkon the Younger, King Håkon Håkon's eldest son. From Norway, this literary activity of recasting foreign stories into narratives in the Norse tongue
was also introduced into Iceland, but these stories did not become popular there, as the style was best suited to the tastes of knights and courtiers. The Icelanders usually base their narratives on Norwegian translations, not on the original text, and many of these sagas, such as Thedrek Saga, the Karla Magnus Saga, and others, are therefore found in widely different Norwegian and Icelandic versions.
One of the most important and interesting works in Old Norse literature is The King's Mirror, Old Norse Konungskygjö, Latin Speculum Regulæ, written in the reign of Håkon Håkonsson about 1250-1260 by an anonymous Norwegian author who must have lived in Nåndalen near Tryndalaginn. This work occupies a unique position in Old Norse literature. It is a didactic philosophic treatise in the form of a dialogue between a father and his son, in which the author planned to describe
the education, culture, and manners of the four classes of Norwegian society, merchants, courtiers, farmers, bönder, and clergy. The father gives this description so that the son may choose his calling with insight, and that he may know what he must learn in order to become successful and honored in his profession. Only two parts have been written, but even in its fragmentary form it gives the most vivid picture of medieval Norwegian society, especially of the upper classes, of any
work in existence. It is worthy of note that the agricultural class, Bünder, is treated not only as an independent and highly respected class, but as a separate estate equal in rank to the courtiers and the clergy. This was something quite unusual at this time, when the agricultural classes elsewhere in Europe had sunk into abject serfdom. It is equally worthy of attention that the merchants also formed a distinct class, no less highly regarded than the others. The father
says to his son, Though I have been more a king's man, i.e. a courtier, than a merchant, still I would find no fault if you would choose this profession, for it is now often chosen by the best men. That the agricultural and merchant classes should stand so high is quite remarkable, when we consider that even the third estate, the citizen of the larger cities, had gained but scant recognition elsewhere in Europe. The father goes on to outline to his son
what he must study if he wishes to become a real merchant. He points out the necessity of avoiding drinking and gambling, of being upright, Christian-minded, well-dressed, polite, and cultured, as this constitutes the general basis for a successful career. He must also study the laws, especially the Briarki Jaretr, or Norwegian Municipal Laws. He must know the manners and customs of every country where he travels, and if he wishes to be especially well-qualified,
he should study all languages, especially Latin and French, for they reach farthest, but neither must thou neglect thine own language. He advises his son also to get a thorough knowledge of the courses of the heavenly bodies, of the tides, and other natural phenomena of importance to navigation. He must become especially well-versed also in arithmetic, which is indispensable to merchants. He instructs him how to equip his ships for the voyage,
in what seasons of the year he should sail, and what rules he is to observe in doing business. He gives the young man very detailed and elaborate instruction in political and physical geography, in which branches he shows deep interest and remarkable knowledge. He discusses the ocean currents, the prevailing winds, the aurora borealis, the volcanoes, geysers, warm springs, and earthquakes in Iceland, and the glaciers and icebergs in Greenland. He gives a description of
Ireland and Iceland, and discusses the climate and the conditions in Greenland with great minuteness and with considerable accuracy. He says to his son, But since thou doest ask if the sun shines in Greenland, or whether it happens that there is fine weather as in other countries, then thou must know forsooth that there is fine sunshine, and that the climate there in the summer time may be called good. But there is great difference in the seasons, for the winter is almost
a perpetual night, and summer almost a continuous day. But when the sun is highest, it is strong enough to give light, but it gives but little heat. Still it is so strong that where the ground is free from ice, it is warm so much that it produces good and fragrant grass. Therefore, people can easily inhabit the land where it is thawed up, but that is indeed only a small area. He describes the fishes and animals in the ocean near Iceland and Greenland,
and discusses in detail the fauna of Greenland, the domestic animals of this country, its products, exports and imports, and the mode of life of the people. In the second part, in which he discusses the courtier class, he speaks of the manners and customs of the court, of the power of the king, of the nature and value of the government, and instructs his son in military science and the use of arms. If we compare this system of education with the established curriculum of the schools in
other countries of Europe at that time, we are struck by its superiority over all school plans then existing. The schoolmen were yet confining instruction to their trivium and quadrivium, which embraced little more than Latin and scholastic dialects. Of geography, there was none, excepting that might be incidentally mentioned as explanatory notes to Latin texts. The mother tongue was banished from the schools, as were all modern languages,
natural science was not taught. Natural science was very much neglected in the Middle Ages. With extraordinary credulity, the people regarded the most incredible as true, and being prepossessed by a belief in invented phantasms and wonders, they did not see God's true wonders in creation, says Karl von Raumer. The author of The King's Mirror finds it necessary for the young man, the prospective merchant,
who wishes to be well-educated, to study not only Latin but French, and especially his own mother tongue, yes, all languages, which simply means as many languages as possible. He has to learn the laws of trade and commerce. He must study the courses of the heavenly bodies and the changing seasons, i.e. astronomy. He must learn practical navigation, and he must devote a special attention to the study of nature, climate, ocean currents, glaciers, icebergs,
volcanoes, earthquakes, and animal life on sea and land. He must also study political geography, the customs and manners of all nations which he comes in contact with, their products, their imports, and exports. Besides acquiring such training, both practical and theoretical, he should also be a Christian and cultured gentleman. This system of education is so modern in spirit and general purpose that with but a few modifications we might well accept it
today without much hesitation. A little reflection and comparison make us feel the truth of the great scholar Sophus Bugis' statement that the king's mirror was five centuries ahead of its time. Strong evidence, indeed, that no people in Europe were better educated than the Norwegians. The remarkable growth of Norse prose literature in the 13th century represents the culmination of a long literary development and cannot be directly attributed to the influence of the
reign of Håkon Håkensson. Still, the court of the king of Norway was in this period, as heretofore, the centre of the intellectual life of the Norwegian people. It was the place where men of learning and ability met, where the impulses from abroad were most directly felt, and where many of the leading works were written. Karl Jonsson wrote the Sverres Saga at King Sverres Court, and by his aid. Sturla Thordsson was persuaded by King Magnus Håkensson,
Lagerbatter, to write the Håken Håkensson Saga at King Magnus' court, and by his assistance. The Volsunga Saga is thought to have been written at the court of Håkon Håkonsson for the entertainment of the king, and a part of the Stjorn was written at the request of King Håkon Magnusson, died 1319. It is certain also that Snorra Sturluson was encouraged, especially by Skulejarl, to write the younger Edda and the Heimskringla. King Håkon's peaceful and glorious
reign and his lofty example proved a powerful stimulus. He was well-educated and could read Latin as well as Norse. He was intensely interested in literature and art, anxious to further the intellectual development of his people, as he was careful to preserve the power and honor of his kingdom and the prosperity of the nation. The king of Norway was to the Norwegian people what King Arthur was to the Knights of the Round Table, the source of national unity and strength,
by whose influence and power they felt themselves united into one nation. The king was the bond of union between the colonies and the mother country, and the source of national tradition and honor. This would alone explain the great influence which the king and his court exerted on the development of literature and culture and the growth of national spirit. King Haakon took great interest also in commerce and the development of cities.
On the coast of Bohuslen he founded the city of Marstrand, probably because of the great herring fisheries along this coast. He improved the harbor of Agdenes at the entrance to the Trondheimsfjord, and constructed wharfs there. He also sought to protect Norwegian commerce by treaties with England and Lübeck. King Valdemar the Victorious and his successors had not been friendly to Norway, and when war broke out between Denmark and the German city of Lübeck,
Norwegian shipping was injured by both parties. Håkon therefore seized the ships both of the Danes and of the Lübeckers in Norwegian harbors, a measure which proved so effective that the merchants of Lübeck sent John de Bardewijk as ambassador to Bergen to apologize to King Håkon. The result was a commercial treaty between Norway and Lübeck, concluded October 6, 1250. Treaties of commerce were also signed with the King of England.
Håkon devoted much attention to the improvement of the coast defenses. It seems to have been his plan to construct a system of fortresses which would safeguard all important harbors and protect the whole coast. He rebuilt the Sverreborg at Bergen, reconstructed the Sverreborg at Trondheim, erected a fortress at Ragenhilderholm, near Konghela, and fortified Oslo and Tunsberg.
The many churches, monasteries, hospitals, and other public buildings erected during this reign testified to Hawken's great interest in cities and city culture. At Bergen he erected the Hawken's Hall, a large two-story royal hall of stone, built in early English style. It stood completed in 1261, when the wedding of his son Magnus was celebrated there. In later centuries, this fine piece of early Norwegian architecture suffered much through neglect, but it has been restored,
and it remains one of the proudest old structures which adorns the city. The Håkon-Håkensson saga gives the following account of his activity as a builder. He built a church in Tromsø and Christianized the whole parish belonging to it. Many Permians came to him who had fled from the east because of the inroads of the Tatars. These he Christianized and he permitted them to settle on the Mellingerfjord.
He built a church at Offiton, a redoubt and piers for wharfs at Ogdenes. In Nidaros he built a hall in connection with the royal residence, as well as a chapel over against the royal hostelries. In Bergen, he built the Apostle Church of Stone near the royal residence. He also built a St. Olaf's Church and a monastery at his own expense.
He improved the royal residence at Bergen by erecting two stone halls and by surrounding it with a stone wall with castles above the portals. He built the St. Catherine Church at Sandbrugh, together with a hospital, and gave to it property yielding an income of 200 maunadermadr. In the castle at Bergen he rebuilt all the houses which had been destroyed by fire.
He erected two-thirds of the surrounding stone wall with embrasures and built the outer castle. The All Saints' Church at the upper end of the Vauge, i.e. the Fjord, was also built according to the king's advice, and he gave to it one hundred maunathermather during his illness. At Ogvaldsnes he built a stone church the fourth in size of all the parish churches in Norway, At Tunsberg, he constructed a castellated stone wall around the mountain, and built the Gauta
castle across the Daneklev. He built also the necessary houses on the mountain, erected a royal residence near the St. Lawrence church, and built a hospital near the St. Olaf's church, to which he gave property yielding an income of 300 marks. He caused the channel at Skellestein to be deepened so that cougar, i.e. merchant ships, could now sail where ferryboats could scarcely float before. He built the Barefoot Brothers' Church at Tunsberg, but moved it later
to Dragsmark, where he erected a St. Mary's cloister in a stone church, to which he gave property yielding an income of fifty marks. In Oslo, he built a castle on the Valkalberg, and moved the St. Nicholas' Church thither. He also built the royal residence on the islands. On the Valdes' home, he also built houses. At Konghela, he erected a castle on the Roggenhild's He built a royal dwelling in the city and houses on Gulloen.
He cleared the Eker Islands and built houses and a wooden church there. He likewise founded Marstrand and erected buildings in many islands in Viken. He erected a stone castle at Ringsaker on Lake Mjösen and built houses there. He built also a hall at Steig and repaired the church which was nearly in ruins. He also built a hall at Hof in Breiden and donated property to it, and at Tofta he built a hall and a chapel.
He bought Lowe in Oedal and built dwelling houses, hall and chapel there. In Hedemarken he erected halls at Hussebo in Skaun and at Ringsakker, and he caused dwelling houses to be built at Widheim in Uehr. He also constructed a stone wall around the Sverderburg at Stenbergenne, and built houses there, since the Bagler had destroyed the castle. This catalogue of the great king's many achievements furnishes all necessary evidence of his remarkable energy, and proves how great was his solicitude
for the intellectual development as well as for the social and economic welfare of the nation. The greatest architectural work of King Haakon's reign was the building of the nave of the Trondheim Cathedral. After the death of Archbishop Oystein in 1188, the work on the cathedral seems to have been discontinued. His successor, Archbishop Eric Iverson, engaged in a bitter controversy with King Sfera and was forced to leave the country in 1190. Sfera charged him with keeping
a large force of armed followers, as if he feared an attack upon himself or his church. That he thus spent the money which he should have used to keep workmen in the quarries carrying and cutting stone for the construction of the cathedral according to the original plan. Whether Erik's successors, Thorre Gudmundsson, 1206-1214, and Guttorm, 1215-1224, continued the work is not known, but it was not resumed with vigour till in the time of
Archbishop Sigur Eindridisum, 1231-1252. He began the erection of the nave, which seems to have been nearly completed in the time of Archbishop Jon, 1268-1282. The nave, which like the chancel was built in the Gothic style, was the most ornate and imposing part of the great cathedral. According to the old writer Absalon Pedersen Bayer, 1530-1574, the west front had a large gilt circular window cut in stone. Peter Clausen Fries, 1545-1614, a priest in southern Norway,
says of it, But about that same cathedral, how it was built or how large it is, I can write nothing save what I have heard of others, namely that it is built in the form of a cross, of cut stones which are chiseled into all sorts of figures round about the whole church, both inside and outside, so that it is astonishing, and in the west front, which is gilt, large images of the twelve apostles are cut in stone and gilt. And there are numerous pillars of polished marble,
both inside and outside in the church, both white and black and of different color, so smooth that one might think they had been cast. In the southern portal there are about sixty pillars ingeniously wrought, so that one cannot well estimate what this single door has cost, not to mention the whole church. How the nave looked when completed it is difficult to determine, for it was scarcely finished when a series of accidents gradually reduced the proud
edifice to a melancholy ruin. But the Norwegian people, who have always cherished piously the memories of their past history, have long since made its restoration a national cause. Since 1869, the work of rebuilding the Great Cathedral has been in progress under the leadership of the best architects and sculptors in the country. Large sums are contributed yearly to the cause by individuals and private organizations as well as by the state,
and before many years have rolled by, the old church will again lift its proud towers over the city of Trondheim. End of chapter 70
